Beyond Parental Acceptance and Rejection: A Commentary on the Findings From Empirical Studies on Forgiveness and Vengeance in the Muslim World

Abstract

Drawing on the framework of interpersonal acceptance-rejection theory (IPARTheory), this special issue edited by Ronald P. Rohner, Sumbleen Ali, and Jennifer E. Lansford explores forgiveness and vengeance within the context of the Muslim world. Examination of the precursors of forgiveness and vengeance holds significance because vengeance typically correlates with adverse physical and psychological health outcomes. We suggest ways to advance research outlined in the special issue, such as assessing cross-cultural invariance and using diverse research designs. Moreover, increasing the diversity of socioeconomic status in studies conducted in the Muslim world and exploring hypotheses in high-income countries are necessary for contextually nuanced research. Overall, this special issue offers valuable insights into the dynamics of forgiveness and vengeance and highlights the role of culture and gender on psychological well-being across diverse contexts.

Keywords:

• Interpersonal acceptance-rejection theory (IPARTheory)
• forgiveness
• vengeance
• Muslim world
• parent-child relationships

The articles featured in this special issue are rooted in interpersonal acceptance-rejection theory (IPARTheory; Rohner, 2021), an evidence-based theory focused on socialization and lifespan development. The theory is guided by eight basic postulates emphasizing the enduring and lifelong biologically based emotional need for feeling cared about by significant others, the universal ways individuals perceive interpersonal acceptance and rejection, and the impact of interpersonal rejection on personality dispositions. When individuals perceive that significant others in their lives reject them, they are biologically predisposed to develop the acceptance-rejection syndrome; that is they are predisposed to display emotional and behavioral dispositions such as insecurity; anxiety; anger; impaired self-esteem and self-adequacy; emotional unresponsiveness; dependence or defensive independence depending on the form, frequency, intensity, and duration of perceived rejection; negative worldview; and other cognitive distortions. Furthermore, the theory posits that among the most important people in a person’s life, both parents play a particularly significant role. The theory posits that the effects of parental rejection in childhood extend into adulthood and old age, albeit often in a less intense form than in childhood. More than six decades of research across diverse populations worldwide strongly support these postulates.

According to IPARTheory, the quality of interpersonal relationships determines individuals’ mental representations (Rohner, 2005). Mental representations refer to the organized but generally implicit conception of existence held by individuals, including self-conception, conception of others, and conception of the world. Together, along with one’s emotional state—which influences and is influenced by one’s conception of reality—mental representations tend to influence memory and shape how individuals perceive, construct, and react to new experiences including interpersonal relationships (see for example Crick & Dodge, 1994). It is also worth noting that the effects of perceived rejection are concrete (MacDonald & Leary, 2005). Neuroimaging studies (fMRI), for example, have demonstrated that the same brain areas (ie the anterior cingulate cortex and right ventral prefrontal cortex) are activated both when individuals feel rejected and when they experience physical pain (see Eisenberger & Lieberman, 2004; Eisenberger et al., 2003). From this evidence, we can hypothesize that the experiences of interpersonal rejection during different life stages can modulate both mental representations and biological processes via epigenetic mechanisms (see Epel et al., 2010; see Figure 1). Figure 1 highlights how various relational experiences with important individuals throughout the life cycle, in conjunction with cultural and genetic characteristics, can modulate an individual’s level of psychological well-being. This modulation occurs by shifting it toward either the positive (psychological adjustment) or negative (psychological maladjustment) pole, depending on the frequency, intensity, and duration of perceived acceptance or rejection (A/R in the figure).

Figure 1. Provide a graphic visualization of interpersonal acceptance-rejection theory (IPARTheory). The theory focuses on the biological predisposition for interpersonal social interactions across development. Effects of these positive and negative interactions (such as feeling accepted or rejected by parents, peers, and important others) that occur from birth and during childhood can extend into adulthood and old age – and thereby modulate one psychological adjustment as one ages. The quality of these interpersonal relationships can potentially impact one’s mental representations (conceptions of existence), which in turn influence one’s memory and perception of new interpersonal experiences (eg courting a potential partner or forming a family). Moreover, epigenetic mechanisms combined with sociocultural factors can also affect mental representations and biological processes in response to interpersonal experiences that occur during various life stages.

Studies in the special issue

The collection of empirical studies collected in this Special Issue adhered to the conceptual definitions of vengeance and forgiveness as outlined in IPARTheory. Vengeance, according to the theory, involves the cognitive wish or behavioral attempt to retaliate against individuals perceived to have wronged the individual. This includes physical, emotional, social, or other forms of harm. In contrast, forgiveness—following the American Psychological Association’s definition—entails willfully setting aside feelings of resentment toward someone who has committed a wrong. It involves a voluntary transformation of feelings, attitudes, and behaviors toward the individual, allowing for compassion and generosity without necessarily including reconciliation or excusing the offending person. From this perspective, forgiveness and vengeance tendencies can be linked to mental representations, and thus to interpersonal experiences—and therefore can be respectively considered as the manifestations of psychological adjustment or, alternatively, as the presence of psychological maladjustment. By integrating these definitions and postulates from IPARTheory, the studies in this Special Issue help develop a theoretical foundation for a deeper understanding of the complex dynamics of forgiveness and vengeance within the context of interpersonal relationships.

The research unfolds through the investigation of three key hypotheses, each shedding light on the intricate relationship between childhood memories of parental acceptance or rejection, psychological adjustment or maladjustment, and subsequent dispositions toward forgiveness or vengeance in adulthood. The first hypothesis posits that adults’ recollections of maternal and paternal acceptance in childhood correlate with their inclination toward forgiveness, mediated by psychological adjustment. The second hypothesis suggests that memories of parental rejection are linked to a disposition toward vengeance, mediated by psychological maladjustment. The third hypothesis challenges the existence of significant gender differences in these relationships, emphasizing the universality of the impact of parental acceptance-rejection on the adult psyche. The findings presented in the special issue indicate a complex interplay between memories of parental acceptance or rejection, psychological adjustment, and the subsequent tendencies toward forgiveness and vengeance. The studies underscore the significance of early familial experiences in shaping individuals’ emotional responses in the Muslim world (Ali et al., 2023; Kuyumcu & Altın, 2023; Mullick & Uddin, 2023; Shehata & Zaki, 2023; Taghikhani et al., 2023), with a focus on both maternal and paternal influences. While the majority of the reported results support the connection between memories of parental acceptance and forgiveness, as well as rejection and vengeance, the acknowledgment of gender and cultural variations adds a layer of complexity. Notably, the studies recognize the nuanced nature of these relationships, allowing for the acknowledgment of divergent experiences within the Muslim world.

Beyond the unquestionable merits of the works presented here, some considerations may be useful to give an even broader view of what has been observed. The first consideration involves the specification of the model, namely the selection of variables. Indeed, as highlighted by the studies presented—for a clearer understanding of forgiveness and vengeance tendencies—it will be necessary to expand the pool of explanatory variables considered and to explain the sex and cultural differences observed. Furthermore, referring to considerations more related to IPARTheory, it can be emphasized that while it was necessary to start considering parental acceptance or rejection as an explanatory dimension, it would be appropriate to also consider acceptance or rejection related to other important relationships in the life cycle, such as relationships with peers and romantic partners (see Figure 1). It would also be useful to highlight methodological procedures that, if appropriately considered, may further enhance the results highlighted in this special issue. We refer in particular to the possibility of verifying the comparability of the results collected in different contexts by assessing the cross-cultural and cross-group invariance of the measures considered (see Rohner et al., 2023, 2020) and/or validating the internal validity of the observed findings through the use of different research designs such as longitudinal studies or randomized controlled trials investigating the effects of the quality of important interpersonal relationships on forgiveness and vengeance behaviors.020

Finally, it would be interesting and beneficial to increase the variability in socioeconomic status (SES) within future studies conducted in the Muslim world. Testing the hypotheses explored in the special issue within high-income countries would provide valuable insights as research predominantly conducted in low to middle-income countries may not fully capture the nuances of forgiveness and vengeance behaviors in contexts with different economic realities. High-income countries often have distinct socioeconomic dynamics, cultural norms, and institutional frameworks that could influence these behaviors differently. By conducting studies in high-income countries, researchers can assess the robustness and universality of their findings, contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of forgiveness and vengeance across diverse socioeconomic contexts.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this special issue contributes valuable insights into the intricate dynamics of forgiveness and vengeance in the Muslim world, providing a foundation for further exploration and discussion. The incorporation of cultural and gender nuances in the analysis enhances the depth of understanding, emphasizing the need for a comprehensive approach to studying the impact of interpersonal experiences on psychological well-being across diverse contexts.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

The author(s) reported there is no funding associated with the work featured in this article.

Notes on contributors

Vincenzo Paolo Senese

Vincenzo Paolo Senese, Ph.D. is a Professor at the University of Campania ‘Luigi Vanvitelli’. With expertise in cognitive science and statistical methods, his research focuses on measurement models in test development and the study of cognitive processes regulating human behavior and parenting. He has led numerous research projects, contributing significantly to the fields of psychology and cognitive science.

Gianluca Esposito

Gianluca Esposito, Ph.D., is Professor and Chair of the Ph.D. Program in Cognitive Science at the University of Trento, Italy. As a Developmental Clinical Psychologist, his research delves into child socio-cognitive development, employing advanced methodologies such as human electrophysiology, neuroimaging, and comparative physiological assessment. With a focus on social interaction, he explores caregiver-infant dynamics across species.