Association of Recalled Childhood Sex-Typed Behavior with Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity in Iranian Adult Males and Females

ABSTRACT

Same-sex sexual attraction in both males and females has been associated with childhood sex-atypical behavior. Gynephilic females recall behaving in a manner that is less female-typical and more male-typical compared to cisgender androphilic females, whereas androphilic males recall behaving in a manner that is less male-typical and more female-typical compared to cisgender gynephilic males. In addition, male and female ambiphilic individuals exhibit intermediate levels of childhood sex-atypicality. In this study, we examined recalled childhood sex-typed behavior among Iranian cisgender gynephilic males (n = 236), cisgender ambiphilic males (n = 51), cisgender androphilic males (n = 191), transgender androphilic males (n = 60), cisgender androphilic females (n = 243), cisgender ambiphilic females (n = 96), cisgender gynephilic females (n = 32), and transgender gynephilic females (n = 122). Both cisgender androphilic males and cisgender gynephilic females recalled elevated childhood sex-atypicality, scoring intermediate between cisgender gynephilic males and cisgender androphilic females. Male and female ambiphilic participants scored intermediate between their other- and same-sex attracted cisgender counterparts. Transgender androphilic males exhibited hyper-feminized childhood behavior, scoring even more female-typical than cisgender androphilic females. Transgender gynephilic females recalled behaving as male-typical as cisgender gynephilic males. Consistent with previous research, our findings from Iran – a non-Western, Middle Eastern culture – provide cross-cultural support for the universality of childhood sex-atypicality as a normative developmental precursor of monosexual or ambisexual same-sex attraction in both males and females who are cisgender and transgender.

Acknowledgments

We want to extend our sincere appreciation to Dr. Behzad Sorouri Khorashad and Dr. Ghasem Mohammadian Roshan, whose insightful feedback was indispensable in the translation of the survey into Farsi. We also would like to acknowledge the support and assistance provided by various individuals that made our study in Iran possible. We are profoundly grateful for their contributions.

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Authors’ Contributions

Authors PLV and MSB contributed to the study conceptualization and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by MSB, AT, MJS, MM, and ZA. The first draft of the manuscript was written by MSB and PLV, and all authors commented on subsequent versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Data Availability Statement

Interested researchers may contact the corresponding author to obtain access to the data reported in this article.

Compliance with Ethical Standards

All procedures performed in this study were in accordance with 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments. The questionnaires and methodology for this study were reviewed and approved by the University of Lethbridge Human Participant Research Committee (2021–063) and the University of Alberta Research Ethics Board (Pro00119877).

Informed written consent was obtained from all participants prior to taking part in the study.

Supplementary Material

Supplemental data for this article can be accessed online at https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2024.2346926.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the University of Lethbridge and by a Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC) Insight Grant awarded to Paul L. Vasey.