Children’s Perceptions of a Therapy Dog-Assisted Social and Emotional Learning Intervention: Survey and Interview Findings

ABSTRACT

Therapy dogs can improve the social and mental health outcomes for children and adolescents. School-based interventions that address social and emotional learning (SEL) can promote children’s overall wellbeing and educational outcomes. This study used a qualitative approach to explore children’s perceptions of a 12-week therapy dog-assisted SEL intervention in a mainstream primary school in Australia. Open-ended survey questions were completed by 85 Year 5 students and five of these students engaged in a follow-up interview. A thematic analysis identified three main themes: 1) empowerment through emotional learning, 2) positive relationships with peers and family, and 3) personal growth. Empowerment through emotional learning included the subthemes of experiencing, understanding, regulating, and expressing emotions. Positive relationships included the subtheme of communication. Both the SEL components of the program and the integration of a therapy dog appear to have contributed to a perceived positive impact on children’s wellbeing overall. This study contributes to the evidence of how therapy dogs can impact school environments and provides a structure for how a therapy dog can support student wellbeing.

KEYWORDS:

• Intervention
• primary school
• social and emotional learning
• therapy dogs
• wellbeing

Youth mental health and wellbeing has been a growing concern for the past two decades (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare [AIHW], 2021; Brennan et al., 2021). The COVID-19 pandemic has magnified the issues impacting children and heightened the urgency for interventions, especially school-based interventions (AIHW, 2021; Filia et al., 2022; Nearchou et al., 2020; Tiller et al., 2020). School-based social and emotional learning (SEL) interventions have been highlighted as a promising way to support schools struggling to manage the impact of the pandemic and the lingering mental health concerns (Durlak et al., 2022). SEL interventions in schools help children to develop competencies in self-awareness and self-management as well as in social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision making (Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Learning [CASEL], 2022). The increase in prevalence of anxiety and depression, particularly in light of the pandemic (AIHW, 2021) and the long-term effects of mental health problems call for early intervention and prevention (Lawrence et al., 2016; Woodward & Fergusson, 2001).

Social and emotional development

Childhood and adolescence are critical periods for social and emotional development, making the school setting ideal for interventions targeting and facilitating SEL skills (Durlak et al., 2011). A seminal review of meta-analyses of SEL interventions in schools demonstrated the positive impact early interventions can have on student behaviors, SEL skills, attitudes, and emotions (Durlak et al., 2011). More recently, Cipriano et al.’s (2023) review of universal school-based SEL interventions has substantiated the previous findings demonstrating that students involved in these programs had significantly improved skills, peer relationships, behaviors, and school functioning, among many other positive outcomes. Interventions that build social competencies play a critical role in improving long-term educational outcomes, mental health outcomes, and overall wellbeing in children (Luecken et al., 2013). By teaching students SEL skills at school, students can practise and refine these skills with their peers and teachers. School-based SEL interventions have the potential to have a positive impact on school culture, students’ attitude to learning, and to their sense of school belonging (Durlak et al., 2011; Slaten et al., 2016). Findings also suggest students who participate in SEL interventions are more engaged, more social, and have better quality relationships with their teachers (Cipriano et al., 2023).

Therapy dogs and wellbeing

Another focus of research exploring ways to enhance student wellbeing is in the field of therapy dogs and their impact in the school environment. Researchers have identified that therapy dogs in school settings can help to improve student wellbeing by enhancing self-esteem and confidence and increasing a child’s motivation to learn (Henderson et al., 2020; Kirnan et al., 2020; Sorin et al., 2015). The calming impact of a therapy dog and the potential to decrease a child’s anxiety has also been recognized by researchers (Hinic et al., 2019; Kirnan et al., 2020). The calming impact of a therapy dog and increased motivation can potentially facilitate SEL learning for some children. As noted in these studies, children are more receptive and engaged in the intervention with the therapy dog and, therefore, may be more likely to remember the skills they have learned. Other researchers have found improvements in relationships with peers, communication, and social skills when therapy dogs were present in interventions (Anderson & Olson, 2006; Dimolareva & Dunn, 2020; Jalongo & Petro, 2018; Sorin et al., 2015; Tissen et al., 2007).

Valuable relationships with peers and a positive emotional state within the classroom can support a student to be more receptive to learning (Hall et al., 2016). The presence of a dog in a social training program may support the child in interpreting social situations more accurately; in turn, lowering aggression and improving relationships (Tissen et al., 2007).

Overall, there is some evidence of the positive impact of therapy dogs on student wellbeing and learning in the classroom (Brelsford et al., 2017; Reilly et al., 2020). However, a recent systematic review found there is still limited evidence in mainstream schools with a typically developing population (Wintermantel et al., 2023). In particular, there is little evidence of dog-assisted SEL interventions in schools. The potential for a therapy dog to mediate and enhance the outcomes of an evidence-based SEL intervention has not been explored in depth and highlights a gap in the literature.

Perceptions of therapy dogs and interventions

Effective programs in schools require engagement from all stakeholders. Involving children in the development of programs acknowledges their unique perspectives and enables them to have the opportunity to actively shape their own learning and improve their sense of wellbeing (Grove & Laletas, 2020; Halliday et al., 2019; Levin, 2000; Shute & Slee, 2016). There is limited research in schools that involves student voices in the development of wellbeing programs and assumptions are often made about what is best for the children without their input (Halliday et al., 2019). Furthermore, the few studies investigating children’s perceptions after an SEL intervention discuss perceptions about the school climate, rather than the intervention itself (see, for example, Gol-Guven, 2017; Pack et al., 2011). Children have the potential to identify the most appropriate interventions for themselves in their school with their peers (Foulkes & Stapley, 2022; Levin, 2000).

Researchers investigating children’s perceptions of therapy dog-assisted programs in schools highlight the perceived benefits of a dog: having a calming effect, making learning more enjoyable, increasing self-esteem, and enhancing an overall sense of wellbeing (Chadwick et al., 2022; Harris & Binfet, 2022; Zents et al., 2017). For example, Harris and Binfet (2022) explored a small group of 5- to 11-year-old children’s perceptions of a six-week dog-assisted SEL intervention and reported that the children found the program more enjoyable with the dog and stated that the dog was essential to the program. The topics in the intervention included self-control, leadership, perspective taking, giving, and receiving compliments and a celebration of learning. Children practised the skills they learned with the therapy dog prior to applying them to unknown individuals. When exploring children’s perceptions of therapy dogs on internal states, Zents et al. (2017) found themes around reducing anger, reducing anxiety, finding comfort, improving confidence, and improving concentration. Findings suggest that integrating a therapy dog into SEL initiatives can provide unique advantages, improve children’s engagement, and support their learning of social and emotional skills.

Current study

In summary, this review has highlighted the potential benefits of including a therapy dog into an SEL intervention that could contribute to enhancing a child’s social and emotional wellbeing. By incorporating a therapy dog into an evidence-based SEL intervention, the positive outcomes may outweigh an SEL intervention alone. Although evidence is mounting in the field, there is still limited research into how children perceive therapy dogs and SEL interventions in schools. Studies that have analyzed children’s perceptions of therapy dogs in schools have not included the therapy dog into an evidence-based SEL intervention (Harris & Binfet, 2022; Zents et al., 2017). The findings intend to help school leaders understand children’s views about therapy dogs and make informed decisions about if and how to include a therapy dog in a school setting. Thus, the overarching question is “What are children’s perceptions of the benefits of a therapy dog assisted SEL intervention in a school setting?”

Methodology

Study design

This qualitative study aimed to explore children’s perceptions of a therapy dog-assisted intervention designed to improve educational, mental health, and wellbeing outcomes. Data were collected in two phases. Phase 1 consisted of open-ended survey questions and Phase 2 consisted of a series of semi-structured interviews. The surveys provided evidence of patterns across a larger population (Braun et al., 2021). The interviews provided a more in-depth understanding of attitudes, thoughts, and actions and allowed the interviewee to share additional information about their program experience (Jain, 2021).

About the intervention

Merrell’s Strong Kids Grades 3–5 Program (Carrizales-Englemann et al., 2016) was selected as the evidence-based SEL intervention. This program has been shown to reduce emotional distress and improve SEL skills and attitudes (Gueldner et al., 2019; Neth et al., 2020). The program follows the recommendations by Durlak and DuPre (2008) to be sequenced, active, focused, and explicit, and consists of 12 lessons (60 minutes each). These lessons were delivered weekly at the same time for each class for 12 weeks. The Merrell’s Strong Kids 3–5 program was adapted by the first author to include the use of a therapy dog. See Table 1 for an outline of the program with adaptations to incorporate the therapy dog.

Table 1. Outline of strong kids grades 3–5 with adaptations to therapy dog intervention.

Lesson	Topic	Purpose and Objectives	Adaptations to Therapy Dog Intervention
1	About Strong Kids: Emotional Strength Training	Be introduced to curriculum Learn expected behaviors for participation in curriculum Begin to identify emotions Participate in the pre-test	Meet and greet therapy dog (introduce therapy dog with profile) Introduce expected behaviors for working with therapy dog Begin to identify emotions (look for body cues in therapy dog)
2	Understanding Your Emotions: Part 1	Develop the ability to identify physical feelings that occur with emotions Identify emotions on a continuum from comfortable to uncomfortable Measure the intensity of emotions	Students interact with therapy dog at the start, during and end of the lesson Discuss situations when the therapy dog would feel calm or energized (physical feelings) and the emotions she may be feeling (content, happy, scared, surprised) Use example scenario with therapy dog: You just found out that the therapy dog’s good friend is seriously ill and at the vet. You think you might cry. You also notice that other people look sad too and you were told that feeling this way is normal. (Show photo of therapy dog and her friend.)
3	Understanding Your Emotions: Part 2	Identify thoughts and behaviors that occur with emotions Identify behaviors that communicate emotions in helpful and unhelpful ways Understand the way we communicate with others may affect our relationships Recognize that the way in which emotions are expressed depends on our backgrounds and the context in which we experience emotions	Students interact with therapy dog at the start, during, and end of the lesson Thoughts are linked with emotions: use picture of a child next to a dog with thought bubbles and feelings instead of Supplement 3.3- change sample script Behaviors and actions can communicate emotions: connect to therapy dog body cues and behaviors (e.g., tail wagging, growling, tail between her legs) Identify the ways the therapy dog expresses emotions in different contexts
4	Understanding Other People’s Emotions	Use context to consider how someone else may be feeling Practice taking the perspective of others Use scenarios to practice empathy	Students interact with therapy dog at the start, during, and end of the lesson Add photos of dogs showing emotions to Supplement 4.2
5	Dealing with Anger	List and describe the steps of an anger model Develop the ability to name and describe some primary anger management skills Apply anger management skills to situations	Students interact with therapy dog at the start, during, and end of the lesson Identify and discuss anger cues in the therapy dog and actions students should take and the actions the dog takes What would make a dog angry?
6	Clear Thinking 1	Understand the influence of thoughts on emotions and behaviors Develop an awareness of their own thoughts Identify common thinking traps that affect behavior, thoughts, and emotions	Students interact with therapy dog at the start, during, and end of the lesson Photo of a big dog instead of frog (Supplement 6.1) and photo of a child with the big dog (6.2) Refer to supplement 3.3 -thought bubbles with dog Example of black and white thinking trap: one dog once growled at you so you think that all dogs are mean and will growl at you Change scenario with “pet” to “dog”
7	Clear Thinking 2	Develop the ability to notice or observe thoughts Discriminate healthy thought patterns that promote resilience from though patterns that may be less helpful and hinder social and emotional growth Learn and apply techniques to reframe thinking traps	Students interact with therapy dog at the start, during, and end of the lesson Connect reframing to our voice helping to soothe and regulate the therapy dog- starts with a lot of practice and instructions from the handler and then becomes a habit for the therapy dog, same as reframing for a student
8	Solving People Problems	Learn ways to be aware of one’s actions and maintain a healthy attitude Distinguish between helpful and unhelpful decision-making strategies to resolve conflict Identify and apply the steps of a problem-solving model to resolve conflicts	Students interact with therapy dog at the start, during, and end of the lesson Use conflict example of photo of two children fighting over ball thrower as they both want to throw the ball to the therapy dog One group role-model conflict resolution using ball thrower and therapy dog, share conflict resolution Examples and nonexamples using this example (e.g., Nonexample is running off with the ball thrower or hiding it so the other child can’t use it) Work through conflict resolution steps as a class with therapy dog example: identify the problem, develop a plan evaluate the plan, implement the plan
9	Letting Go of Stress	Identify helpful and unhelpful stress and stress triggers Understand the effects stress can have on our emotional and physical wellbeing Learn the difference between realistic (achievable) and unrealistic (unachievable) expectations on ourselves that may produce stress Learn relaxation and coping techniques to reduce stress Learn how to choose helpful ways to manage and release stress	Students interact with therapy dog at the start, during, and end of the lesson Discuss the signs of stress in the therapy dog and the cues Discuss how patting a dog can reduce stress (cortisol) and increase oxytocin
10	Positive Living	Understand the value associated with positive daily chores List some typical actions or behaviors that contribute to a healthy and positive lifestyle Distinguish between examples and nonexamples of positive life choices	Students interact with therapy dog at the start, during, and end of the lesson Connect having a dog to the Healthy Habits (Supplement 10.3): In what ways does a dog contribute to your physical health? Emotional and mental health? Community connections? Family and social connections? Discuss
11	Creating Strong and SMART Goals	Understand the importance of increasing and maintaining positive activities Increase an awareness of their own strengths and limitations Set SMART goals Monitor progress toward goals Develop resilience in the goal attainment process	Students interact with therapy dog at the start, during, and end of the lesson Discuss SMART goals for overcoming a fear of dogs
12	Finishing UP!	Review lessons 1–11 content Develop an awareness of supports and safety networks Enhance an understanding of resilience and persistence Participate in the post-test	Students interact with therapy dog at the start, during, and end of the lesson Review therapy dog’s body cues and emotions

The fidelity measure from the Strong Kids program was used to ensure the intervention was delivered as intended, with an observer checking 92% of program components across the 12 sessions. An adapted fidelity measure that included the extra therapy dog components was developed, with 97% of these components completed across the program.

Therapy dog intervention

A 5-year-old female yellow Labrador, named Bella, participated in the adapted Strong Kids Grades 3–5 therapy dog intervention. Both handler and dog have undergone therapy dog training with Lead the Way Institute (Lead the Way Institute, n.d.) to be certified to work with children. An independent facilitator delivered the Strong Kids Grades 3–5 intervention while the researcher facilitated the adaptations to the program to include the therapy dog.

Ethical considerations

Ethical clearance was obtained from the relevant university committee. Consent forms were distributed by the school and parental consent was obtained. Prior to completing the initial survey, each child provided verbal assent and was made aware they could withdraw at any time.

Guidelines from the American Psychological Association for ethical conduct in the care and use of nonhuman animals in research (American Psychological Association, 2012) and other therapy dog frameworks specific to school and educational settings (Grove, Henderson, & Lee, 2021; Grove, Henderson, Lee, & Wardlaw, 2021) were followed. The therapy dog was monitored to reduce potential dog stress and/or fatigue. At the start of the intervention, children were educated about behavior expectations, the correct way to approach the therapy dog, and how to look for signs of distress (see Appendix A). The Lincoln Education Assistance Tool (LEAD) Dog Care Plan (Brelsford et al., 2020) was adhered to and referred to throughout the intervention (see Appendix B). The therapy dog engaged in the intervention for two days a week for a one-hour session on each day for the duration of 12 weeks. Participants had the option to opt out of the program for cultural reasons or if they had a fear or allergy to dogs. They were offered the opportunity to take part in the same intervention without the therapy dog.

To address facilitator bias, a protocol paper was published in advance (see Wintermantel & Grove, 2022), fidelity measures were adhered to for both interventions, and the first author was only involved in running the part of the intervention related to the therapy dog, not the manualized components of the Strong Kids program. Postgraduate psychology students facilitated the manualized program.

Data collection

Descriptive statistics

Descriptive statistics gathered included age, gender, language spoken at home, and whether the child had a dog at home.

Qualitative analysis

A reflexive thematic analysis based on Braun and Clarke’s method (Braun & Clarke, 2021) was conducted on the interview transcripts and the open-ended survey questions. Thematic analysis is “a method for developing, analysing, and interpreting patterns across a qualitative dataset which involves systematic processes of data coding to develop themes” (Braun & Clarke, 2021, p. 4). The flexibility and accessibility of thematic analysis allowed the authors to combine the data from the interviews and the surveys to look at the themes as a whole. The analysis began with a familiarization of the data by reading and highlighting related content and generating codes that were adjusted and refined over several reads of the data. Inter-coder agreement was established in this phase. Themes were then generated by the first author. The team of researchers reviewed and discussed the codes and themes to reach an agreement. A process of negotiation occurred for some themes; for example, the original themes of “learning,” “relationships,” and “emotions” were changed to “personal growth,” “positive relationships,” and “empowerment through emotional learning” to add clarity and represent each theme more accurately.

Participants

This study forms part of a larger study (see Wintermantel & Grove, 2022, for the protocol paper). Two classes were initially randomly allocated to the therapy dog-assisted SEL intervention, with a further two classes completing this intervention as the waitlist group. Altogether, 85 primary school children age 10–11 in Year 5 from one mainstream school took part in the intervention (see Table 2 for demographic information). The school is considered to be a high socioeconomic independent school.

Table 2. Demographic information of participants.

	Survey		Interview
Demographic	Total	%	Total	%
Participants	85		5
Gender
Males	38	45	2	40
Females	47	55	3	60
Ages
10	75	88	5	100
11	10	12	0	0
Dog at home
Yes	39	46	3	60
No	46	54	2	40
Main language at home			5	100
English	68	80
Indian/Sri Lankan language	14	16.5
Afrikaans	2	2.4
Cambodian language	1	1.2

At the beginning of the pre-assessment survey, each child provided assent to take part in the program and complete the questionnaires. They were also asked whether they could be contacted for an interview about their experiences following the program. Before the program began, parents and participants were invited to attend a webinar information session to explain the project and go through the explanatory statement.

The selection criteria for children to take part in the interview required that they:

1. Provided examples in their written answers to the open-ended survey questions

2. Attended more than 10 intervention sessions

3. Contributed to discussions and were engaged in intervention activities.

Measures

Open-ended survey questions

The post survey consisted of questions regarding children’s perceptions about the intervention (see Appendix C). They were asked to describe the program in two words, write about what they enjoyed/didn’t enjoy, and then use Likert scales to express whether they felt there had been any changes since completing the intervention. These questions were created specifically to identify children’s perceptions of the SEL intervention and included areas related to the proposed outcomes of the intervention: a focus on relationships and feelings. The two-word descriptors and comments about what they enjoyed/didn’t enjoy were not used in the analysis.

Semi-structured interviews

The interviews occurred face-to-face at the school at a convenient time to the participant and researcher. The children provided assent prior to commencing the interview. The semi-structured interviews provided children with an opportunity to respond to specific topics and extend their answers to the survey questions by providing more detailed examples. The interview aimed to explore the child’s general experience of the intervention, their social and emotional learning, their mood, and their views on the inclusion of the therapy dog (see Appendix D). Probes such as “tell me more” were used to support this exploration.

Findings

Through a reflexive thematic analysis of the data, three overarching themes were developed: empowerment through emotional learning, positive relationships, and personal growth (provided in Table 3 with subthemes).

Table 3. Themes and characteristics.

Theme	Subthemes	Characteristics
Empowerment through emotional learning	Experiencing Emotions Understanding Emotions Regulating Emotions Expressing Emotions	By understanding emotions experienced, we are able to regulate and express emotions effectively.
Positive relationships	Communication	By improving communication and conflict resolution, relationships are enhanced and extended.
Personal growth		A positive attitude to learning improves focus and attention and helps understanding.

A thematic map was created to demonstrate the interconnectedness of the themes and how they relate, for example, improving communication can improve relationships and is also related to expressing how one feels (see Figure 1). Another example is how regulating emotions can help to improve focus and attention as well as helping with uncomfortable feelings, such as anger, which, in turn, can improve relationships.

Figure 1. Thematic map.

Theme 1: Empowerment through emotional learning

The interview and open-ended survey responses showed a focus on emotions and empowerment through emotional learning. The subthemes of understanding, experiencing, regulating, and expressing emotions reflected the core outcomes of children who engaged in the therapy dog intervention. Children showed an understanding of how they are feeling and how they can manage uncomfortable feelings by expressing their emotions and improving communication overall:

I really enjoyed learning new things about emotions and how you then work with it, because I’m not very good at expressing. I wasn’t very good at expressing my emotions. And then once I did this programme, it helped me with a lot of other things that you guys said. So, I was able to speak more clearly about my emotions and how I was feeling instead of yelling or using other things that were not as good as well. (Female, 10)

Subtheme: Experiencing emotions

The therapy dog had an impact on the emotions the children experienced and, in particular, a positive change in emotions:

One of the times I was sad and she [therapy dog] just got up when she saw me. She just got up and started like she walked to me and stuff and started licking my face like she always makes me happy when she licks my face. (Male, 10)

Children also expressed feelings of emotional support and safety when the therapy dog was present:

I wouldn’t put my hand up a lot. Like I wouldn’t have done that if I didn’t have Bella there. Because Bella basically said, “Come on put your hand up you know what you’re saying. You know what you want to say” so I put my hand up most of the time. (Female, 10)

Responses also highlighted how much the children enjoyed the program with the therapy dog present:

I felt very happy. Like, I felt very heart-warming, like a dog coming into a classroom like it’s like a class pet every week we get to see our class pet like our mascot. I love Bella and I love my pets, so I love every single one of them like they’re all my best friends like all the dogs are my best friends, big, small, fat chubby whatever they are I love dogs and Bella is very kind and warm and sweet dog and that she’s very helpful with like feelings. (Female, 10)

This positive impact on wellbeing was shown by “patting Bella made me relieve that stress. It’s okay, relax. Like that was the feeling that I really loved because she was always there to help out and calm me down” (Female, 10).

Subtheme: Understanding emotions

The first two lessons of the intervention focused on helping children to understand how they experienced emotions. The children’s learning and awareness of how they were feeling was reflected in their responses by “knowing what I feel inside helps you elaborate on that on the outside. I can show my feelings more” (Female, 10) and since being in the program “I’ve learned that it’s okay to be scared or be in traps [Thinking Traps] and to not be okay. Like, I can speak to someone about that” (Female, 10). By understanding emotions children felt they could have more control over changing them, expressed as “I used to not care about my feelings. Now I would always try and change my feelings as well” (Survey) and “I really enjoyed learning new things about emotions and how you then work with them” (Female, 10).

Subtheme: Regulating emotions

The combination of the program curriculum and the presence of the therapy dog meant that children felt they could manage their stress more efficiently:

The hot chocolate breathing. A lot of things like this stress [reduction strategy] that really helped a lot. When you first introduced it with all the class, I didn’t know that it would actually work, but I tried doing it at home for a few days and it started helping. (Male, 10)

Another child indicated that “she [therapy dog] felt the feeling that I was stressed, and I hadn’t been able to express that, and Bella was like kind of like telling me it’s okay” (Female, 10).

Two children reported that they were able to overcome their fear of dogs through working with the therapy dog in the program: “It helped me a lot with my interaction with dogs. If you guys wouldn’t have Bella, I think I would have still been scared of dogs” (Female, 10) and:

It definitely helped me overcome my fear of dogs better because like Bella is definitely not rough. She’s definitely playful. I can tell if she was at the park, I think she’d be a very playful dog. She’s very playful but she’s calm and gentle. And I think that really helped with my fear of dogs, so I’m not as scared of dogs now. Definitely not. So, if I see a dog, like I said, I won’t be scared. Because Bella is very … very, very good. (Female, 10)

The program had a lesson focusing on anger management and the benefits of this lesson were highlighted in the responses given by children: “Now I know how to calm myself when I am angry. My friends and I communicate in a more healthy way” (Survey). Many children discussed an improvement in relationships as they worked on managing their own anger. It appears that the combination of working on anger management strategies as well as learning conflict resolution steps meant children learned skills to navigate challenges in their relationships:

When I was angry, instead of yelling back at them, I used the Finger Breathing and the Hot Chocolate Breathing. I talked to them more politely and I said can I have just a minute to go and calm myself down and then I’ll come back and talk to you politely. (Female, 10)

Yeah, my anger. Like, it wasn’t really bad, but it could have been better and that sometimes made me lose some friends. Taking part in the programme has really helped me with controlling my anger, my feelings, my emotions, and everything that’s going to that and my friendship with my friends. (Female, 10)

Subtheme: Expressing emotions

Expressing emotions appeared to improve communication and relationships with others:

It was very helpful because I had struggled, like trouble, opening up to people that I feel comfortable talking to and now after I’ve done this programme, I feel more happy to talk to people I love and tell them what I’m feeling and that I’m happy to share with them. (Female, 10)

The program outcomes of naming and normalizing feelings appeared to give the children the confidence to share these feelings with others.

Theme 2: Positive relationships

Understanding and expressing emotions appeared to have a direct impact on another salient theme identified: positive relationships. The children’s responses showed that by improving communication and through conflict resolution, relationships were enhanced and extended.

Subtheme: Communication

By understanding and expressing feelings children communicated more effectively with their peers and families:

Yeah, I think it’s changed like the way towards how I see other people and when they do things and the way they act. So sometimes when people are like before the programme if someone would start yelling at me, I get really upset because I got yelled at but now after the programme, I’ve understood like some people don’t understand. They don’t find it as easy to like control their emotions or stuff. So now I can actually talk calmly to them. (Female, 10)

When in class, if someone is feeling upset, I can now understand more how to see their emotions. With my friends, I have improved in the way I interact with them as I can tell if they are annoyed with something and that I can help them. (Female, 10)

Another way relationships appeared to improve was by learning skills to regulate emotions. By regulating anger and working on conflict resolution steps, children were able to improve communication with their family and friends because “I’ve noticed I’ve gotten better at making friends, and I’ve gotten better at dealing with my anger and sadness” (Survey).

Theme 3: Personal growth

The third salient theme personal growth highlighted further benefits of the program. The adapted program to include connections to dogs appeared to have a key role in this theme. Children felt that connecting the program to dogs made it more meaningful and they had a better understanding of the content of the program:

Helped me get a better understanding of stuff. Just by seeing a few pictures I might not really comprehend that or remember that for a long time and I acknowledged that, so I think an actual dog there helped me comprehend and have that understanding. (Female, 10)

Children were able to make connections between how humans and dogs show emotions:

I think it probably made me understand things like cause you can actually see that some things that we do for humans like the emotions are also the same for dogs. I’ve learned about like how dogs react as well as how humans will react. (Female, 10)

Incorporating a therapy dog into the program also made it more relatable to those with their own dogs at home:

I think maybe it will be a little bit harder for people to focus [without the therapy dog], because they’ll say they’ll talk about dogs and people get really excited. People can relate because like for most of the people in their head like when we were doing the class, they would have a dog. So, they could like say, “Oh, I did that with my dog too.” Or “my dog does the same thing.” So, I think maybe people would find it harder to relate [without the therapy dog]. (Female, 10)

Making meaningful connections had a flow on effect for children’s focus, attention, and attitude to the program, as the children were more engaged in the content of the discussions because [without the therapy dog]: “Maybe some students would lose focus or might think the thing was boring because there was nothing to entertain them” (Female, 10). Another finding was that children felt that the therapy dog helped them to focus by “keeping their hands occupied” almost like a fidget toy, for example, “For me, she [therapy dog] helped me concentrate more, because I’m very fiddly. So, if she just sits next to me, I can just pat her and then it helps me to concentrate more” (Male, 10).

Children’s responses referred to “looking forward” to the day when the program was running:

I liked coming to school knowing I am going to see Bella. Coming to school I feel much better because I don’t know what’s going to happen in the future, but I know that everything will be okay. I used to hate coming to school now I love it! (Survey)

Well, it helped me with my mental health a lot. It helped me concentrate in class … . I get happy when it [the program] happens because often on Mondays at lunch, I get a bit overwhelmed when I’m playing basketball and I’m angry when I come inside, but then I turn happy when I know I’m doing this. (Male, 10)

One child shared that she missed the therapy dog if a session was canceled:

Missing a week of the Monash program when you guys weren’t able to come, or we had to cancel was very stressful. It was very hard because I missed seeing Bella and Bella every time, she would always I think she did this every week but would lie on my lap and she smelled me. She always looked at my face and it is like she heard me. (Female, 10)

It was evident from the responses that the students reflected upon their learning and made connections to themselves and how they have changed since completing the intervention because “I liked learning about how we can self-manage ourselves and I think I could really use that throughout my life. Very helpful” (Female, 10) and “So, I think this program was really good because it changed the way I look at things” (Female, 10) and:

I liked the thinking traps lesson when we talked about the thinking traps because I feel like I get stuck in a lot of thinking traps most of the time because I’m always a bit worried. Like I said, opening up was a bit of a struggle, trouble to tell people how I feel like I thought I was getting stuck in a thinking trap so I feel more comfortable now that I’ve done the thing with the thinking traps and know what thinking trap I keep putting myself in and it’s ok to get out of that thinking trap and focus, to tell people what I’m feeling. (Female, 10)

Discussion

The study sought to understand children’s perceptions of the benefits of a therapy dog-assisted SEL intervention in a school setting. Overall, children perceived the intervention to have a positive impact on their emotional learning, relationships with their peers and family, and their personal growth.

The Strong Kids Program has a focus on managing and regulating emotions and this was evident in the responses from the interview transcripts and surveys. The children appeared to benefit from explicitly learning strategies to support them with anger, stress, and their worries. The responses demonstrated that learning how to regulate emotions supported the children in enhancing their relationships and helped to improve their focus in class. The presence of a therapy dog appears to have contributed to more effective emotional learning as it helped the children to feel calm and engaged.

After a child has identified how they are feeling, learning appropriate ways to express feelings is an important part of SEL programs. To understand and express feelings has been associated with subjective wellbeing (DiFabio & Kenny, 2016) and physical wellbeing (Matthews et al., 2017), and is part of a child’s healthy development leading to positive long-term mental and educational outcomes (Luecken et al., 2013). As one of the key themes, empowerment through emotional learning is an important aspect for children who engaged in the program. Emotional learning should form the basis of SEL curriculum development in schools. This will support children in developing the skills to communicate their emotional needs and to understand the emotional needs of others, which will help them to navigate relationships and their learning as they grow and develop throughout their schooling. The therapy dog appears to have supported this learning, as the children could make connections to their own feelings and how they were expressed and how the therapy dog expressed her feelings.

Children’s perceived positive impact of the therapy dog on their emotions is consistent with previous research findings of the positive change in affect after interacting with a dog (Beetz, 2013; Kertes et al., 2017; Sorin et al., 2015). One explanation could be a reduction in the stress hormone, cortisol, when a dog is present in a stressful situation (Beetz et al., 2012; Kerns et al., 2018; Kertes et al., 2017). A therapy dog also has the potential to de-escalate anger through providing dog-related humor or as an alternative focus of attention for children (Anderson & Olson, 2006). A therapy dog can provide a non-judgmental space for children to engage in their learning and can help to facilitate positive emotions, making learning more enjoyable overall. This is an important consideration for schools intending to incorporate a therapy dog into the classroom.

In line with the current study, previous researchers have also found that children expressed how having a therapy dog present made them feel happy, calm, confident, and secure (Archer & Ireland, 2011; Fine & Beck, 2019; Kurdak, 2008). These findings are not surprising, given that the therapy dog appeared to be viewed as a secure base and source of comfort, similar to that of a human attachment figure (Archer & Ireland, 2011). One theory behind the perceived feelings of safety around a therapy dog is known as the Biophilia Hypothesis (Wilson, 1984). Humans tend to seek a relationship and connection with animals and a close attachment to a dog can provide a source of emotional support, as well as security (Archer & Ireland, 2011; Fine & Beck, 2019; Kurdak, 2008).

Consistent with Harris and Binfet’s (2022) findings, children in the current study expressed how much they enjoyed the program with the therapy dog present. A couple of possible reasons for this could be that their self-esteem was boosted by the bond with the therapy dog (Sorin et al., 2015) or perhaps the children were able to co-regulate with the therapy dog’s “happy and carefree” demeanor. The presence of a therapy dog in improving attitude to learning is consistent with Henderson et al.’s (2020) finding that children’s attitude to reading improved through a Reading Dogs program and other studies have found that having a therapy dog in the school can motivate children in their learning and to attend school (Kirnan et al., 2020; Sorin et al., 2015).

It is useful to determine children’s attitude to dogs prior to starting a therapy dog program; however, the change in a couple of children with an initial fear of dogs demonstrates this benefit of the program that may not have been observed had these children been excluded from it. The change in fear of the therapy dog is backed by evidence of graded exposure in the treatment of phobias (Bohnlein et al., 2020). The children’s motivation as well as the cognitive components of the Strong Kids program may have facilitated this positive change (Bohnlein et al., 2020).

The finding that a therapy dog program helped to enhance and extend relationships is consistent with other therapy dog research (Anderson & Olson, 2006; Jalongo & Petro, 2018; Tissen et al., 2007). Building positive relationships is important in children’s wellbeing as they grow and develop (Luecken et al., 2013). The school setting provides the optimal environment for students to explicitly learn these skills and practise them with their peers and teachers. Also consistent with findings in SEL interventions in general without a therapy dog (Hoctor et al., 2023), the children in the current study felt more confident expressing their feelings and showing compassion toward others after engaging in an SEL intervention. Integrating this learning in a meaningful whole-class context can help promote a sense of belonging (Durlak et al., 2011; Slaten et al., 2016) and help children feel more connected to their peers (Hoctor et al., 2023). Communicating effectively and learning skills to manage conflict are essential components of an SEL curriculum. Again, the therapy dog appeared to enhance the program by facilitating social interactions and extending relationships, known as the “social facilitation effect” (Hart & Yanamoto, 2015; Wells, 2004).

Children had a positive attitude to learning and appeared to enjoy the program overall, which is consistent with previous therapy dog findings (Beetz, 2013; Harris & Binfet, 2022; Sorin et al., 2015). The role of therapy dogs supporting attention in the classroom has been discussed by Kotrschal and Ortbauer (2003), who found that the children in their study paid more attention to the teacher when the dog was present. In another study, children with a diagnosis of ADHD experienced significant improvements in their perceived behavior, as well as social and academic competence (Schuck et al., 2018).

A transfer and consolidation of learning to areas outside of school is an important part of making the learning meaningful and effective (Hattie & Donoghue, 2016). The transfer is more likely to happen if children observe similarities and differences between one situation and a new situation, for example, between the therapy dog in the classroom and their own dog at home. This transfer of learning was reflected when the children in the current study made meaningful connections to their own dogs.

An aspect of the Strong Kids SEL program was self-reflection. Having an awareness of how you are feeling, your own “thinking traps” and habits, helps to support learning overall. This is an important part of becoming a lifelong learner with a “growth mindset.” The program included a goal-setting lesson and a lesson reflecting on healthy habits. The personal growth theme included different outcomes considered valuable in learning: the skills, dispositions, and motivations of the child (Hattie & Donoghue, 2016). By promoting these areas through the use of a therapy dog in the classroom, children’s learning can be enhanced overall.

Overall, the perceived benefits of therapy dogs in SEL interventions are interconnected with each theme influencing the other themes and leading to an overall improved sense of wellbeing. Learning and understanding emotions can improve communication and relationships, which can also lead to personal growth and development. The integration of these themes is a key feature of successful SEL interventions in schools and school leaders should consider which programs they introduce and how these should be implemented, including how a therapy dog can be incorporated. In sum, children’s attitudes to dogs, their relationships with their peers, and their engagement in their learning can change from taking part in a program like this with a therapy dog.

The positive perceptions of the children involved in the program highlight the benefits of including a therapy dog in an SEL intervention in order to enhance wellbeing outcomes. Including student feedback about an intervention helps to inform future programs catering for the children involved. Clear goals for including a therapy dog in an intervention should be considered at the outset.

Limitations and future research

The research question informed the selection of the children who found the program beneficial. Future researchers may choose to include a cross-section of students in order to determine whether other students did not find the program beneficial and the reasons why. The children were also from a high socioeconomic population. Future research should explore more varied populations.

The results analyzed were all from children’s perceptions in the interviews and surveys. These self-report measures may have introduced bias due to social desirability, and they reflected the children’s subjective experience of the program. Introducing a social desirability scale may support future research in this area. Also, having a more triangulated approach by using data from the teachers, parents, and facilitators would add value to the discussion about the benefits of therapy dogs in schools.

Conclusion

The aim of this study was to explore children’s perceptions of the benefits of a therapy dog-assisted SEL intervention in the classroom. A thematic analysis of interview transcripts and open-ended survey responses revealed three salient themes: empowerment through emotional learning, positive relationships, and personal growth. The inclusion of a therapy dog appeared to enhance children’s experiences of the intervention. By understanding emotions experienced, children are able to regulate and express emotions effectively. This, in turn, helps to improve communication and enhance relationships. A positive attitude to learning improves focus and attention. These interconnected themes support children with an overall increased sense of wellbeing in the classroom.

The findings of this study contribute to the limited research investigating interventions with therapy dogs in schools. The perceived benefits of the program and the format of the adapted program itself help to inform school leaders of an effective way to incorporate a therapy dog to maximize student wellbeing.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Appendix A.

Behavior expectations with Bella

Appendix B.

Dog care plan

Appendix C.

Open-ended survey questions

Table

1	How was your time participating in the program overall? Please write two words to describe it.
2	What did you enjoy about the program and why?
3	What didn’t you enjoy about the program and why?
4	Since participating in the program, have there been changes in the way you talk or play with: - Classmates, Friends, Family? Please give examples.
5	Since participating in the program, has anything changed in the way you feel about: - School/Learning, Yourself, Coming to school? Please give examples.

Appendix D.

Interview questions

General experience with the therapy dog program:

1. How was your time participating in the program?

   1. What did you like/enjoy about it?

   2. What did you not like/enjoy about it?

2. Has taking part in the program helped you in any way? If yes, in what way and why? If not, why do you say so?

Social and emotional learning:

(3) What are some of the things you learned from the program?

(4) Did you practice some of the skills outside of the program? If so, can you give me some examples?

(5) Have your relationships with your friends, classmates, and/or family members changed since taking part in the program? If so, how? Please give some examples.

Mood:

(6) Have you noticed any changes in the way you feel since taking part in the program? If so, what has changed?

(7) Have you noticed any changes in how you manage your feelings since taking part in the program? If so, please give some examples.

Conclusion

(8) Is there anything else you want to tell me about this program?

THERAPY DOG PROGRAM ONLY

1. Can you tell me why the therapy dog was part of your program?

2. In what ways do you think having the therapy dog changed the program for you?

3. How do you think the program would be different if the therapy dog was not there to help?

4. Do you think the therapy dog helped you in any way? If so, how?

5. Is there anything else you would like to tell me about the therapy dog and having her in the program?

PROBES (if required)

• Tell me more

• Please explain

• Do you remember anything else?

• Can you give me some examples?

• Tell me more about that