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Notes
1 Vijay Prashad, “Rwanda’s military is the French proxy on African soil” Mail & Guardian. September 12, 2021. https://mg.co.za/africa/2021-09-12-rwandas-military-is-the-french-proxy-on-african-soil/
2 Patrick Bond, “French fossil imperialism, South African subimperialism and anti-imperial resistance” CADTM. December 15, 2022. https://www.cadtm.org/French-fossil-imperialism-South-African-subimperialism-and-anti-imperial
3 Patrick Bond, “BRICS banking and the debate over sub-imperialism” Third World Quarterly 37, no 4 (2005): 611–629. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01436597.2015.1128816?fbclid=IwAR1w6bKM7cr7VumAl1OUdnaB6fIPIDcZ_byn3ZOPCRptMA1EVRlsZRe1d4Y
4 Patrick Bond, “Towards a Broader Theory of Imperialism” ROAPE.net. April 18, 2018. http://roape.net/2018/04/18/towards-a-broader-theory-of-imperialism/
5 Walter Daum, “Is Imperialism still Imperialist? A Response to Patrick Bond” ROAPE.net May 16, 2018. https://roape.net/2018/05/16/is-imperialism-still-imperialist-a-response-to-patrick-bond/?fbclid=IwAR2sJsfnWhTMk36bS1sxRZPKhT-Mo1PmrENa3oXfeFfzIp0XjnfkLgWLlIM
6 This is not to say that the Rwandan elite did not demand the French non-response as a condition of participation, only that the Rwandan strategy was aimed towards a wide variety of beneficial outcomes to national elites, most of which could not be provided by the French state.
7 Jesse Harasta, “Wars for Oil, Wars by Oil: Understanding Petro-Autocracy and the ‘New’ Imperialism” Socialism and Democracy 35, no. 2–3 (2012): 167–192, DOI: 10.1080/08854300.2021.2076045
8 P.R. Warhurst, “Smuts and Africa: A Study in Sub-Imperialism”, South African Historical Journal, 16, no. 1 (1984): 82–100, DOI: 10.1080/02582478408671588
9 Arantxa Underwood, “Which countries have the highest rates of modern slavery and most victims?” Thomas Reuters Foundation, July 31, 2018. https://reliefweb.int/report/world/which-countries-have-highest-rates-modern-slavery-and-most-victims
10 Jason Stearns, The War That Doesn't Say its Name: The Unending Conflict in the Congo (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2021).
11 Coralie Pierret, “In eastern DRC, Goma is increasingly isolated,” Le Monde, March 7, 2023, https://www.lemonde.fr/en/international/article/2023/03/07/in-eastern-drc-goma-is-increasingly-isolated_6018465_4.html?fbclid=IwAR3XIJL8ycy7hOxnAksjtiZdFKzn13V34In5uhHGKsOp1_TmHY4sCC2lok4
12 Daan van Uhm et al., “Business as usual? Illegal charcoal and timber trade in Eastern DRC,” Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime, December 2022, https://globalinitiative.net/analysis/charcoal-timber-trade-eastern-drc-congo/
13 This term, developed in Russia post-1991 to define how former Soviet states were different - “sovereign but not independent” – from the “far abroad,” has been applied to other imperial projects, such as Turkey’s numerous interventions and occupations in its neighbors. It is useful here as the imperialized regions of the DRC and Burundi share a significant cultural and political history with Rwanda, have seen borders shift over time, are easily accessible by Rwanda economically and militarily, and form a zone of frontier security concerns. Vladislav Inozemtsev, “The 'Near Abroad' – A Key Explanatory Concept In Russian Foreign Policy,” MEMRI, January 7, 2021, https://www.memri.org/reports/near-abroad-%E2%80%93-key-explanatory-concept-russian-foreign-policy
14 Which has more than doubled in its share from 8 percent to 18 percent between 1994 and 2020. “Urban Population (% of total population) – Rwanda,” World Urbanization Prospects: 2018 Revision, The World Bank Group, https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS?locations=RW
15 An Ansoms, “Re-Engineering Rural Society: The Visions and Ambitions of the Rwandan Elite,” African Affairs 108, no. 431 (2009): 289–309, http://dx.doi.org/adp001
16 André Ntagwabir and Chap Kusimba, “Ritual and State Making in Precolonial Rwanda,” The African Archaeological Review 38, no. 4 (2021):569–595, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10437-021-09462-6
17 There is a third group within the Rwanda-Rundi System: the Twa. Forming a small minority (around 2 percent), these people are of markedly small stature and traditionally lived as foraging hunters or potters at the periphery of the Rwanda-Rundi system, trading pelts and pots with settled communities for grains and manufactured goods. The story of the Twa is deeply intertwined with those of the Tutsis and Hutus but their small numbers and political/economic marginalization mean that they will not feature strongly in this analysis. One important point to note is that despite their physically distinctive character (they were groups often referred to as “pygmies”), current genetic and ethnographic studies have shown that they likely originated as an economic caste like the Hutus and Tutsis but developed their stature only very recently within that system. See: Robert Blench, “Are the African Pygmies an Ethnographic Fiction?”, in Challenging Elusiveness: Central African Hunter-Gatherers in a Multidisciplinary Perspective, ed. Karen Biesbrouk, Stefan Elders and Gerda Rossel. Leiden: Research School for Asian, African and Amerindian Studies, 1999.
18 Staff Reporter, “Living and Dying with the Enemy,” Mail & Guardian, May 22, 1998, https://mg.co.za/article/1998-05-22-living-and-dying-with-the-enemy/
19 Alex Shoumatoff, “Rwanda’s Aristocratic Guerillas,” The New York Times, December 13, 1992, https://www.nytimes.com/1992/12/13/magazine/rwandas-aristocratic-guerrillas.html
20 Anthony Court, “The Banyamulenge of South Kivu: The ‘Nationality’ Question,” African Studies 72, no 3 (December 2013).
21 James C. Scott, The Art of Not Being Governed (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009).
22 Gillian Mathys, “Bringing History Back In: Past, Present and Conflict in Rwanda and the Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo,” The Journal of African History, 58, no. 3 (2017): 465–487, doi:10.1017/S0021853717000391
23 Josias Semujanga, Origins of the Rwandan Genocide (Amherst, MA: Humanity Books, 2003).
24 Irving Leonard Markovitz, Power and Class in Africa (Oxford: Oxford University Press: 1987): 208.
25 In Rwanda, before the Genocide, the largest tin mines and tea plantations were nationalized and operated by a state bureaucracy.
26 Richard L. Sklar, “The Nature of Class Domination in Africa,” The Journal of Modern African Studies, 17, no 4 (1979): 531–552, https://www.jstor.org/stable/160739
27 John S. Saul, “The Dialectics of Class and Tribe,” Studies in Political Economy, 1, no 1 (1979): 1–42, https://doi.org/10.1080/19187033.1979.11675736
28 Christina Cliff, “The Coming Genocide? Burundi’s Past, Present and Potentially Deadly Future,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 41, no 9 (2018): 722–735
29 Like the assassination of John F. Kennedy, the shooting down of the plane carrying Habyarimana and President Cyprien Ntaryamira of Burundi is shrouded in conspiracy theory, conflicting investigations and the political hatreds still simmering in the area. While beyond the scope of this piece, this author believes that the balance of evidence, including the assassination (clearly by Hutu Power elements) of Prime Minister Agathe Uwilingiyimana the next day, points to Hutu Power culpability.
30 Gérard Prunier, The Rwanda Crisis: History of a Genocide (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995).
31 Sonia Pace, “Rwanda: Scenes from a nightmare,” Africa Report, 40 no. 1 (1995): 40.
32 Staff, “U.N. Wants End to Shelling of Kigali Airport,” Deseret News, May 22, 1994, https://www.deseret.com/1994/5/22/19110356/u-n-wants-end-to-shelling-of-kigali-airport?fbclid=IwAR0lA2yVt99o1dxtzn5aC5zjb0c0nNe8jRwV54d2tCTFVvDWG6Pp7oqRO0w
33 Staff, “Rutongo Tin Mines,” NS Energy, https://www.nsenergybusiness.com/projects/rutongo-tin-mines/?fbclid=IwAR3Q9KN6-b6Y9xTeTa-KCFpG8LAD7AhCZc8bMzmXMMdl13D-7QIZjeMZ8HI#
34 Isaac A. Kamola, “Coffee and Genocide,” Transition 99, 54–72, https://www.jstor.org/stable/20204261
35 Staff, “Rwandan tea industry chief surrenders to UN tribunal on genocide charges,” UN News, August 16, 2005, https://news.un.org/en/story/2005/08/149052
36 Basillioh Mutahe, “Rwanda genocide: How Félicien Kabuga evaded capture for 26 years,” BBC News, May 24, 2020, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-52758693.amp?fbclid=IwAR3wi7fx1XPjNLKViXG1ftCe5K_iNZPu-kwG3f18DUte8iMDjy0XC6hD2fA
37 Isaac A. Kamola, “Coffee and Genocide,” Transition 99, 54–72, https://www.jstor.org/stable/20204261
38 Alan J. Kuperman, “How the Media Missed Rwandan Genocide,” International Press Institute, July 1, (2003), https://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/COMM.7.8.03.HTM
39 Sonia Pace, “Rwanda: Scenes from a nightmare,” Africa Report, 40 no. 1 (1995): 40.
40 Nellie Peyton and Hereward Holland, “UN Experts: Rwanda has intervened militarily in eastern Congo,” Reuters, August 4, 2022, https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/un-experts-say-rwanda-has-intervened-militarily-eastern-congo-2022-08-04/?fbclid=IwAR2lEhU-cdxoDue6tHnE-gZD-h2wzluX5fAU1ntX3ffT0NQ9fMjttgmpkVo
41 Teresa Nogueira Pinto, “Is the Third Congo War approaching?,” GIS Reports Online, April 12, 2023, https://www.gisreportsonline.com/r/drc-war/
42 D. Todd, “An international probe into arms trafficking in Rwanda … ” CanWest News, May 29, 1995.
43 Brian Wood and Johan Peleman, The Arms Fixers. Controlling the Brokers and Shipping Agents, (Oslo: NISAT/PRIO/BASIC Report, 2000), https://www.prio.org/publications/658
44 William Hartung et al., "Deadly Legacy- US Arms to Africa and the Congo War," The World Policy Institute, Feb 3, 2000, https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstream/handle/2152/5829/2290.pdf
45 “First Congo War – Attacks Against Hutu Refugees,” Mapping Report, http://www.mapping-report.org/en/first-congo-war-attacks-against-hutu-refugees/
46 “First Congo War and the ADFL Regime,” Mapping Report, http://www.mapping-report.org/en/first-congo-war-and-afdl-regime/
47 Staff, “How Che Saw Kabila,” Newsweek, April 20 1997, https://www.newsweek.com/how-che-saw-kabila-171416
48 Adrian Blomfield, “Under a Spell: The Tortured World of Congo’s Child Soldiers,” The Telegraph, October 29, 2019, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/child-soldiers-of-the-congo/
49 Tom Cooper, Great Lakes Conflagration: Second Congo War 1998–2003 (Warwick: Helion & Company, 2013).
50 HRW Staff, “What Kabila is Hiding: Civilian Killings and Impunity in Congo,” Human Rights Watch, October 1, 1997, https://www.hrw.org/report/1997/10/01/what-kabila-hiding/civilian-killings-and-impunity-congo?fbclid=IwAR3eeMxoz3×9H05OZb4LAi9hI_3YzpNiGqCCXNwwNLqiIIORDryMUeoMbwk
51 John F. Clark, “Foreign Intervention in the Civil War of the Congo Republic,” Issue: A Journal of Opinion 26, no 1 (1998): 31–36, https://doi.org/10.2307/1166550
52 Philip Roessler, “Africa’s Great War,” Philip Roessler Homepage, https://philiproessler.net/research/why-comrades-go-to-war/
53 Cranimer Mugwera, “Review of Congo war halves death toll,” NBC News, Jan 20, 2010, https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna34958903
54 Gérard Prunier, Africa’s World War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011).
55 Chris McGreal, “The Roots of War in Eastern Congo,” The Guardian, May 15, 2008, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/may/16/congo
56 Muza Mpofu, “Battle for N’Djili airport, August 1998: Military action by highly-trained ZDF during DRC war,” My Zimbabwe, June 19, 2019, https://www.myzimbabwe.co.zw/news/47560-battle-for-ndjili-airport-august-1998-military-action-by-highly-trained-zdf-during-drc-war.html?fbclid=IwAR0D4U3PIVSUo2azzEUOAFxbD7vyD_w9dHkpwN7WJieoSBrJR8VL7yQTLWU
57 Staff, “Heading for an African War,” The Economist, September 3, 1998, https://www.economist.com/international/1998/09/03/heading-for-an-african-war
58 John Prendergast, “Susan Rice in Africa,” The Politico, Dec 7, 2012, https://www.politico.com/story/2012/12/susan-rice-in-africa-084699
59 Ian Fisher, “Kisangani Journal; Where War is Forever, the Diamonds are Cheap,” New York Times, December 25, 1998, https://www.nytimes.com/1998/12/25/world/kisangani-journal-where-war-is-forever-the-diamonds-are-cheap.html
60 Hrvoje Hranski, “Rwanda Routs Uganda in Congo Battle,” Washington Post, June 12, 2000, https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2000/06/12/rwanda-routs-uganda-in-congo-battle/daf087b3-414d-40f9-a83f-8898f2448504/
61 In the Marxist sense of “Primitive Accumulation,” see here the relevant section in Karl Marx Capital Volume I, Chapter 26, accessed online at https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1867-c1/ch26.htm
62 Colum Lynch, “U.N. Report Cites UNITA Diamond, Arms Deals,” Washington Post, March 11, 2000, https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2000/03/11/un-report-cites-unita-diamond-arms-deals/a008359a-72a3-490f-b94a-0e430fad5de8/
63 James Rupert, “Angolan Incursion Reflects New Interventionist Posture in Africa” Washington Post, October 21, 1997, https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1997/10/21/angolan-incursion-reflects-new-interventionist-posture-in-africa/d54adc0e-f83f-4148-a039-51e4a0642f21/?fbclid=IwAR0lYpJJjsEAM6e3VrQ0N61OCTks1yer17qa8hK4jc2I-IW5lK91IMIDniA
64 UNHCR, “Violence Linked to Natural Resource Exploitation,” Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Countries/CD/FS-5_Natural_Resources_FINAL.pdf
65 The Unity of the Rwandans (Kigali: Office of the President of the Republic of Rwanda 1999), https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstream/handle/2152/4918/2379.pdf?sequence=1
66 Annalisa G. Bolin, “A Country Without Culture Is Destroyed: Making Rwanda and Rwandans Through Heritage” (PhD diss, Stanford University, 2019).
67 Daniel Moran et al., “Global Supply Chains of Coltan: A Hybrid Life Cycle Assessment Study Using a Social Indicator,” Journal of Industrial Ecology, 00, no. 0 (2014): 1–9, https://folk.ntnu.no/daniemor/pdf/MoranMcBainEtAl_JIE_Coltan.pdf
68 Staff, “Rwanda gives DR Congo back tonnes of smuggled minerals,” BBC News, November 3, 2011, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-15570648
69 Daniel Gleeson, “Rwanda tops the world’s coltan (columbite-tantalite) exports,” International Mining, December 18, 2014, https://im-mining.com/2014/12/18/rwanda-tops-the-worlds-coltan-columbite-tantalite-exports/
70 Hereward Holland, “Venture aims to step up coltan mining in Rwanda,” Reuters, November 26, 2009, https://www.reuters.com/article/ozabs-rwanda-mining-20091126-idAFJOE5AP09T20091126
71 Geoffrey York and Judi Rever, “How ‘blood mineral’ traders in Rwanda are helping fund Congo rebels – and undermining global supply chains,” The Globe and Mail, August 4, 2021, https://www.theglobeandmail.com/business/article-how-blood-mineral-traders-in-rwanda-are-helping-fund-congo-rebels-and/
72 David Whitehouse, “More than $4bn a year in high-risk gold flows from DRC, Uganda, Rwanda, CAR and others,” The Africa Report, March 5, 2021, https://www.theafricareport.com/69799/more-than-4bn-a-year-in-high-risk-gold-flows-from-drc-uganda-rwanda-car-and-others/
73 David Himbara, “Rwanda’s Gold Exports Recently Increased by 754.6%. But Where Does this Gold Come From?,” The Medium, November 15, 2020, https://medium.com/@david.himbara_27884/rwandas-gold-exports-recently-increased-by-754-but-where-does-this-gold-come-from-713b4fcead9a
74 “Rwanda 2021 Historical Data,” Observatory of Economic Complexity, https://oec.world/en/profile/country/rwa#historical-data
75 Martin Doevenspeck, “Constructing the border from below: Narratives from the Congolese-Rwandan state boundary,” Political Geography 30 (2011): 129–142
76 Group of Experts, “Letter dated 16 December 2022 from the Group of Experts on the Democratic Republic of the Congo addressed to the President of the Security Council,” United Nations Security Council, December 16, 2022, https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N22/757/86/PDF/N2275786.pdf?OpenElement
77 Human Rights Watch, “DR Congo: Atrocities by Rwanda-Backed M23 Rebels,” February 6, 2023, https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/02/06/dr-congo-atrocities-rwanda-backed-m23-rebels
78 Staff “EU urges Rwanda to stop supporting M23 rebels in DR Congo,” EURACTIV.com, January 1, 2023; https://www.euractiv.com/section/global-europe/news/eu-urges-rwanda-to-stop-supporting-m23-rebels-in-dr-congo/; Staff “Rwanda military aid cut by US over DR Congo M23 rebels,” BBC News, July 22, 2012, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-18944299?fbclid=IwAR2zDVrH-TxYpYPMfJzgucMmiKMTc8xJL-C2h16AnlRc5oNiOli1CJUoLv4
79 Gérard Prunier “ Burundi: Descent into Chaos or a Manageable Crisis?,” UNHCR Refworld. March 1, 1995, https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6a6c00.html
80 Consociational systems are those with constitutional guarantees of representation and powersharing between ethnicities or religions. They are often negotiated in contexts of prolonged armed conflict. Examples include Lebanon, Northern Ireland, and Bosnia-Herzegovina.
81 “Burundi under Siege,” International Crisis Group, April 28, 1998, https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6a6d30.html
82 Gérard Prunier “Burundi: Descent Into Chaos or a Manageable Crisis?,” UNHCR Refworld. March 1, 1995, https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6a6c00.html
83 Barbara Crossette, “Rwanda joins effort to Isolate Burundi,” New York Times, August 9, 1996, https://www.nytimes.com/1996/08/09/world/rwanda-joins-effort-to-isolate-burundi.html
84 Thomas Laely, “Peasants, Local Communities, and Central Power in Burundi,” The Journal of Modern African Studies, 35, no. 4 (1997): 695–716. doi:10.1017/S0022278X97002590
85 “Rwanda-Burundi Bilateral Trade,” The Observatory of Economic Complexity, https://oec.world/en/profile/bilateral-country/rwa/partner/bdi#:~:text=Rwanda-Burundi%20In%202021%2C%20Rwanda%20exported%20%243.42M%20to%20Burundi.,from%20%24664k%20in%201995%20to%20%243.42M%20in%202021.
86 US State Department, “Burundi (Tier 3),” The Trafficking in Persons Report 2020,https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-trafficking-in-persons-report/burundi/
87 Margot Kiser, “Burundi’s Black Market Skull Trade,” Daily Beast, January 16, 2014, https://www.thedailybeast.com/burundis-black-market-skull-trade
88 Danielle Resnick, “The Political Economy of Africa's Emergent Middle Class: Retrospect and Prospects,” Journal of Inational Development, 27, no. 5 (2015): 573– 587, https://doi.org/10.1002/jid.3110
89 Ashcroft et al. (2007) quoted in M. Aamir Iqbal et al., “An Analysis of the Role of Comprador Class: A Neo-Colonial Study of a Case of Exploding Mangoes by Hanif,” British Journal of Linguistics 3:2 (2007): 6–12, https://www.eajournals.org/wp-content/uploads/An-Analysis-of-the-Role-of-Comprador-Class-A-Neo-Colonial-Study-of-a-Case-of-Exploding-Mangoes-by-Hanif.pdf
90 Paul Nantulya, “Burundi: Why the Arusha Accords are Central,” Africa Center for Strategic Studies, Aug 5, 2015, https://africacenter.org/spotlight/burundi-why-the-arusha-accords-are-central/
91 “Rebels in Burundi say Rwandan troops have invaded the country and are fighting alongside Burundi’s Government Forces,” Voice of America, July 3, 1996, https://reliefweb.int/report/burundi/rebels-burundi-say-rwandan-troops-have-invaded-country-and-are-fighting-alongside
92 Noureddine Krichene, “Purchasing Power Parities in Five East African Countries: Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda,” International Monetary Fund Working Paper, (1998) https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/wp98148.pdf
93 Ignatius Ssuuna, “ Cracks widen within Burundi’s army,” The New Humanitarian, January 13, 2016, https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/analysis/2015/10/12/cracks-widen-within-burundi-s-army
94 André Guichaoua, “Burundi and Rwanda: A Rivalry That Lies at the Heart of the Great Lakes Crises,” The Conversation, August 15, 2016, https://theconversation.com/burundi-and-rwanda-a-rivalry-that-lies-at-the-heart-of-great-lakes-crises-63795
95 “Cibitoke: Distress Cries of Tortured Men Heard in the Provincial Prison of the SNR,” SOS Media Burundi, December 31, 2022, https://www.sosmediasburundi.org/en/2022/12/31/cibitoke-distress-cries-of-tortured-men-heard-in-the-provincial-prison-of-the-snr/
96 Staff, “Refugees flee Burundi for Rwanda as tensions mount,” DW, April 24, 2015, https://www.dw.com/en/refugees-flee-burundi-for-rwanda-as-tensions-mount/a-18407408
97 Michelle Nichols and Louis Charbonneau, “Exclusive: Burundi Rebels say trained by Rwandan military – U.N. Experts,” Reuters, February 3, 2016, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-burundi-rwanda-un/exclusive-burundi-rebels-say-trained-by-rwandan-military-u-n-experts-idUSKCN0VD04K
98 Jordan Anderson, “Burundi’s newest, biggest rebel group,” African Arguments, October 3, 2017, https://africanarguments.org/2017/10/burundi-newest-biggest-rebel-group/
99 Staff, “Burundi names Gitega as New Capital,” The East African, December 22, 2018, https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/tea/news/east-africa/burundi-names-gitega-as-new-capital-1409084
100 For instance: The United States (https://bi.usembassy.gov/embassy/bujumbura/), France (https://bi.ambafrance.org/), and Tanzania (https://www.bi.tzembassy.go.tz/) all maintain embassies in Bujumbura.
101 It also ignores the fact that in 2019, Burundi opened a new, sprawling, fortress-like presidential palace (“fully equipped with watchtowers”) in the outskirts of Bujumbura, built by China for a reported $22 million. Martin Choi “How a Presidential Palace in Burundi fits in with China’s Plans for Africa,” SCMP.com, February 20, 2019, https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/2186970/how-presidential-palace-burundi-fits-chinas-plans-africa
102 Redaction AfricaNews, “Burundi Declares Border Open More Than 5 Years After Closure,” AfricaNews, October 26th, 2022, https://www.africanews.com/2022/10/26/burundi-declares-border-with-rwanda-open-more-than-5-years-after-closure/
103 Staff, “Tanzania to Burundi road links to be upgraded,” World Highways, December 7, 2018, https://www.worldhighways.com/wh8/news/tanzania-burundi-road-links-be-upgraded; Staff “AfDB avails $322m for construction of Tanzania-Burundi Road,” The Citizen, April 14, 2021, https://www.thecitizen.co.tz/tanzania/news/national/afdb-avails-322m-for-construction-of-tanzania-burundi-road--2663632
104 The data set drawn from the Observatory of Economic Complexity and analysis can be found here: https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1g-r5_HjKARXMMMok1OXbvG4w0NPKft2d/edit?usp=sharing&ouid=114980145526297115125&rtpof=true&sd=true
105 Moses Havyarimana and Hellen Githaiga, “Burundi allows sugar, cement imports to tame black market,” The East African, August 10, 2022, https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/tea/business/burundi-allows-sugar-cement-imports-to-tame-black-market-3910282
106 Staff, “Cibitoke: A Dozen Gold Mining Cooperatives Closed,” SOS Media Burundi, January 29, 2023, https://www.sosmediasburundi.org/en/2023/01/29/cibitoke-a-dozen-gold-mining-cooperatives-closed/
107 Staff, “15 Miners Killed after Gold Mine Collapse in East Africa’s Burundi,” First Post, April 3, 2023, https://www.firstpost.com/world/15-miners-killed-after-gold-mine-collapse-in-east-africas-burundi-12397272.html
108 A Stranglehold on Burundi’s Future, Burundi Human Rights Initiative. Accessed online at: Report-Dec-2020-Engl.pdf
109 Staff, “Burundi: Allegations of Killings, Disappearences, Torture,” Human Rights Watch, September 17, 2021, https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/09/17/burundi-allegations-killings-disappearances-torture
110 Staff, “Burundi: Charm Offensive or real change?,” International Crisis Group, July 2, 2021, https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/central-africa/burundi/burundi-charm-offensive-or-real-change
111 Staff, “Afrique: le Congo cède 12000 hectares de terres au Rwanda,” LandPortal, April 15, 2022, https://landportal.org/node/102655?fbclid=IwAR2IDYXfPDWELkuIWTdyVNDc1SP8Mk9M26AkFmJS2lOLVZ-wQL8sTbMnU24
112 Marco Jowell, “Contributor Profile: Rwanda,” International Peace Institute (2020), https://www.ipinst.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/ipi-pub-ppp-rwanda.pdf
113 Beatrice Mategwa, “Service born of sacrifice: Rwanda’s commitment to UN peacekeeping,” UN News, May 11, 2018, https://news.un.org/en/story/2018/05/1009492
114 Jessica Moody, “How Rwanda became Africa’s Policeman,” Foreign Policy, November 21, 2022, https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/11/21/how-rwanda-became-africas-policeman/
115 Carson Keller, “Rwandan Troops to stay in Mozambique,” Overt Defense, March 11, 2022, https://www.overtdefense.com/2022/03/11/rwandan-troops-to-stay-in-mozambique/?fbclid=IwAR0YvDfvLc9ZqBE0Kxi72Gx_BMwUsiQ7xgNL2R0JqOiC8zCSpXU3curFIsU
116 Liesl Louw-Vaudran, “Top-level talks were needed before troops marched into Mozambique,” Institute for Security Studies, August 23, 2021, https://issafrica.org/iss-today/top-level-talks-were-needed-before-troops-marched-into-mozambique
117 Benjamin Auge, “After the success of its army in Mozambique, Rwanda expects economic rewards,” French Institute of International Relations, July 11, 2023, https://www.ifri.org/en/espace-media/lifri-medias/after-success-its-army-mozambique-rwanda-expects-economic-rewards
118 Nicholas Nhede, “TotalEnergies inks deal to improve Rwanda’s power sector,” Smart Energy International, February 1, 2022, https://www.smart-energy.com/industry-sectors/business/totalenergies-inks-deal-to-improve-rwandas-power-sector/
119 Paul-Simon Handy, “Rwanda: The Emergence of an African ‘Smart Power,’” Institute for Security Studies, September 27, 2021, https://issafrica.org/iss-today/rwanda-the-emergence-of-an-african-smart-power
120 Kris Berwouts, “What Does Rwanda gain from the refugee deal with the UK?,” Mondiaal Nieuws, April 26, 2022, https://www.mo.be/en/editorial/what-does-rwanda-gain-refugee-deal-uk
121 Aramide Tinubu, “All of the Lush and Majestic Locations in ‘Our Great National Parks’” www.Netflix.com, April 19, 2022, https://www.netflix.com/tudum/articles/our-great-national-parks-guide
122 Staff, “U.K. Plan to fly asylum-seekers to Rwanda draws outrage,” NPR News, April 15, 2022, https://www.npr.org/2022/04/15/1093006759/uk-plan-to-fly-asylum-seekers-to-rwanda-draws-outrage
123 Kris Berwouts, “What Does Rwanda gain from the refugee deal with the UK?,” Mondiaal Nieuws, April 26, 2022, https://www.mo.be/en/editorial/what-does-rwanda-gain-refugee-deal-uk
124 Kevin Sack and Sheri Fink, “Clinton Foundation makes big gains in Rwanda, despite pitfalls,” The Seattle Times, October 18, 2015, https://www.seattletimes.com/nation-world/clinton-foundation-makes-big-gains-in-rwanda-despite-pitfalls
125 Staff, “Rwanda bolsters force in CAR as rebels 'held back,'” BBC News, December 21, 2020, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-55394042
126 See Jesse Harasta, “Wars for Oil, Wars by Oil: Understanding Petro-Autocracy and the ‘New’ Imperialism” Socialism and Democracy 35, no. 2–3 (2012): 167–192, DOI: 10.1080/08854300.2021.2076045
127 Ivan R. Mugisha, “$400m Eurobond repayment expected to test Rwanda’s limits,” The East African, November 11, 2019, https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/tea/business/-400m-eurobond-repayment-expected-to-test-rwanda-s-limits-1430762
128 Isis Briones, “Everything you need to know about Africa’s most expensive building,” Architectural Digest, May 30, 2019, https://www.architecturaldigest.com/story/everything-need-know-about-africa-most-expensive-building
129 Staff, “African Leaders and Global Health Experts Convene in Rwanda for the 2nd International Conference on Public Health in Africa, CPHIA 2022,” AfricaCDC.org, December 12, 2022, https://africacdc.org/news-item/african-leaders-and-global-health-experts-convene-in-rwanda-for-the-2nd-international-conference-on-public-health-in-africa-cphia-2022/
130 Staff, “World Coffee Producers Forum Coming to Rwanda in 2023,” Daily Coffee News, September 7, 2022, https://dailycoffeenews.com/2022/09/07/world-coffee-producers-forum-coming-to-rwanda-in-2023/
131 Rachel Wood, “Kigali is building its way to becoming ‘the Silicon Valley of Africa,’” CNN, October 19, 2022, https://www.cnn.com/2022/10/19/africa/kigali-buildings-silicon-valley-rwanda-spc-intl/index.html
132 Staff, “Rwanda to build an HPP cascade for alleviation of energy shortages,” Global Energy, May 31, 2022, https://globalenergyprize.org/en/2022/05/31/rwanda-to-build-an-hpp-cascade-for-alleviation-of-energy-shortages/
133 Jack Bantock, “The $2 billion Rwandan airport that could help African aviation take off,” Yahoo News, July 20, 2023, https://www.yahoo.com/lifestyle/2-billion-rwandan-airport-could-083733452.html
134 Staff, “Rwanda wants to quit Great Lakes regional bloc for inaction on genocide refugees”, Africa News, September 1, 2018, https://www.africanews.com/2018/09/01/rwanda-wants-to-quit-great-lakes-lakes-bloc-for-inaction-on-genocide-fugitives/
135 Staff, “High Expectations as Rwanda and Burundi join East African Community,” VOA News November 1, 2009, https://www.voanews.com/a/a-13-2007-07-12-voa37/406029.html
136 Teresa Nogueira Pinto, “Reforming the African Union,” GIS Reports Online, January 15, 2019, https://www.gisreportsonline.com/r/africa-trade/
137 Samir Amin, “Rwanda’s Proxy Wars for Imperialist Interests,” Transcend Media Service, May 19, 2014, https://www.transcend.org/tms/2014/05/rwandas-proxy-wars-for-imperialist-interests
138 Vijay Prashad, “Rwanda’s Military is the French Proxy on African Soil,” Midwestern Marx, September 10, 2021, https://www.midwesternmarx.com/articles/rwandas-military-is-the-french-proxy-on-african-soil-by-vijay-prashad
139 Daniel Sabiiti, “WB Explains How Rwanda Will Become Upper Middle-Income Economy by 2035,” KT Press, November 16th, 2022, https://www.ktpress.rw/2022/11/wb-explains-how-rwanda-will-become-upper-middle-income-economy-by-2035/
140 A convenient start date for US involvement is Bill Clinton’s famous speech at Kigali Airport on March 25th 1998. Staff “Text of Clinton’s Rwanda Speech” CBS News, March 25, 1998, https://www.cbsnews.com/news/text-of-clintons-rwanda-speech/
141 Margaret Kimberley, “Kagame and Other Stooges Do U.S. Bidding in Haiti,” Black Agenda Report, July 19, 2023, https://www.blackagendareport.com/kagame-and-other-stooges-do-us-bidding-haiti?fbclid=IwAR29bj5PHLlZJdlDckEozzELHHNkcaguBdJ3mOwhlmbcDM33Xo5RyySgHrA
142 Staff, “Qatar Airways launches cargo hub at Kigali with RwandAir,” Ch-aviation, May 8, 2023, https://www.ch-aviation.com/portal/news/127394-qatar-airways-launches-cargo-hub-at-kigali-with-rwandair?fbclid=IwAR0S7oQ-bQ_ksD38U_aSV9_cyo3Jj9f3qTDN6yba4_emfOHaScatOsw61CY