Transnational Organizations and Canadian-American Environmental Diplomacy, 1890–1930

ABSTRACT

In the first decades of the twentieth century, a vast network of transnational organizations operated as spaces of collaboration and informal diplomacy that brought together private and public actors across the Canadian-American border in the common pursuit of the protection, propagation, and protection of fisheries in their contiguous waters. At their meetings, the members of this constellation of groups strategized, shared the latest scientific research, and passed resolutions promoting their preferred solutions to the problems plaguing the Canadian-American fisheries. While the process of environmental conservation was anything but expedient – legislation and treaties could be blocked by political and economic concerns, and the ambiguity of shared natural resources complicated the process from its inception – the cumulative efforts of these organizations at the local, state, and provincial level paid dividends at the international level. By the end of the 1920s, the United States and Canada had engaged in a number of bilateral treaties which relied heavily on prominent members of these organizations and the knowledge accumulated over decades of meetings and networking.

Acknowledgement

I would like to acknowledge and express my sincere gratitude to Marc Gallicchio, Alan McPherson, and the editors and anonymous reviewers for Diplomacy & Statecraft for their invaluable contributions in making this manuscript possible.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

^1. The tapestry of Canadian-American boundary relations, environmental and otherwise, was vast, necessitating that the scope of this article be reduced to focus only on a small number of members, interactions, and cases in which the members of these transnational organisations provided the most direct impact and influence in both disappointment and triumph.

^2. C. P. Stacey, Canada and the Age of Conflict, vol. 1, (University of Toronto Press, 1984), 1867–1921, 20–22, 86–87.

^3. Kurkpatrick Dorsey, The Dawn of Conservation Diplomacy: U.S. Canadian Wildlife Protection Treaties in the Progressive Era (London, 2010), 19.

^4. Lester Burrell Shippee, Canadian-American Relations, 1849–1874 (New Haven, 1939), 262–28. “For Uniform Fish Laws”, Baltimore Sun, January 28, 1916.

^5. Arthur Harey, ed. The Year Book and Almanac of Canada for 1870 (Montreal, 1869), 14. “The London Reader: Of Literature, Science, Art and General Information” 5, no. 106 (1865), 76.

^6. Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the gospel of efficiency the progressive conservation movement, 1890–1920 (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1999), 147–9.

^7. Philip G. Wigley, Canada and the Transition to Commonwealth: British-Canadian relations, 1917–1926 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 1–2, 173–80.

^8. Mark H. Lytle, “An Environmental Approach to American Diplomatic History,” Diplomatic History 20, no. 2 (1996), 280–83. Dorsey, “Dealing with the Dinosaur (and Its Swamp): Putting the Environment in Diplomatic History”, Diplomatic History 29, no. 4 (2005), 576, 584–86.

^9. For examples, see Briton Cooper Busch, The War against Seals: A History of the North American Seal Fishery (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1987); Margaret Beattie Bogue, Fishing the Great Lakes: An Environmental History, 1783–1933 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2000); Brian J. Payne, Fishing a Borderless Sea: Environmental Territorialism in the North Atlantic, 1818–1910 (Michigan State University Press, 2010); Dorsey, Dawn of Conservation Diplomacy; Asa McKercher and Philip Van Huizen ed. Undiplomatic History : The New Study of Canada and the World (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2019); Murray Clamen and Daniel Macfarlane ed. The First Century of the International Joint Commission (Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 2020).

^10. Tina Loo, States of Nature: Conserving Canada’s Wildlife in the Twentieth Century (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2006), 63.

^11. Ian Tyrrell, Reforming the World: The Creation of America’s Moral Empire (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010), 3–6, 14–15; Alan Dawley, Changing the World: American Progressives in War and Revolution (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003), 15; See also Christy Jo Snider, “The Influence of Transnational Peace Groups on U.S. Foreign Policy Decision-Makers during the 1930s: Incorporating NGOs into the UN,” Diplomatic History 27, no. 3 (2003), 379–81.

^12. Akira Iriye, “Introduction,” in Global Interdependence: The World After 1945, ed. Akira Iriye and Jürgen Osterhammel. (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2014), 682–83. See also C.A. Bayly, Sven Beckert, Matthew Connelly, Isabel Hofmeyr, Wendy Kozol, and Patricia Seed, “AHR Conversations: On Transnational History,” The American Historical Review 111, no. 5 (2006), 1441–44, 1458.

^13. Mark Atwood Lawrence, David Kinkela, and Erika Marie Bsumek, Nation-States and the Global Environment: New Approaches to International Environmental History (Oxford, 2013), 2–11; Lawrence E. Susskind, Environmental Diplomacy: Negotiating More Effective Global Agreements (New York, 1994), 6–7; Anna-Katharina Wöbse, “Oil on Troubled Waters? Environmental Diplomacy in the League of Nations,” Diplomatic History 32, no. 4 (2008), 519–37; Jonathan Reed Winkler, “Technology and the Environment in the Global Economy,” in America in the World: The Historiography of American Foreign Relations since 1941, ed. Frank Costigliola and Michael J. Hogan, (Cambridge, 2014), 293–95; Zuoyue Wang, Sputnik’s Shadow: the President’s Science Advisory Committee and Cold War America (New Brunswick, NJ, 2008); Gregg Herken, Cardinal Choices: Presidential Science Advising from the Atomic Bomb to SDI (New York, 1992). J. R. McNeill and Corinna R. Unger, Environmental Histories of the Cold War (New York, 2010).

^14. Dorsey, The Dawn of Conservation Diplomacy, 3–4, 15–17, 50–77.

^15. American Fisheries Society, “150^th Anniversary,” https://150years.fisheries.org/timeline_1870–2020 (accessed February 12, 2022); American Sportsman 3, no. 1 (1873), back cover United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries, “Report of the Commissioner for 1872 and 1873, Part II” (Washington, 1874), i, xxxiv. American Fisheries Society (hereafter cited as AFS), Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 46, no. 1 (1916), 8.

^16. AFS, Transactions of the American Fisheries Society (Appleton, WI, 1904), 34.

^17. AFS, Transactions of the American Fisheries Society (New York: 1914), 207–8;

^18. Henry Ward to Hugh M. Smith, 9 April 1914, Record Group 22, Box 1, Folder: American Fisheries Society, Records Concerning Societies, Councils, Conferences, and Other Groups, 1904–1937, National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, MD (hereafter cited as NARA).

^19. AFS, Transactions of the American Fisheries Society (New York, 1888), 8–98.

^20. Dorsey, Dawn of Conservation Diplomacy, 10–29, 40–9; “Internal Fishery Commission,” New York Times, March 13, 1893; 5.

^21. John N. Cobb to Henry B. Ward, 4 July 1916, Box 1, Folder 8, Accession No. 1595–006, John N. Cobb Papers, 1876–1970, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections, Seattle, WA (hereafter cited as Cobb Papers); John N. Cobb to Henry B. Ward, 5 November 1916, Box 1, Folder 8, Cobb Papers.

^22. William Redfield to Cobb, 6 April 1915, Box 2, Folder 15, Cobb Papers.

^23. C.A. Bramble, “North American Fish and Game Protective Association,” Outing: An Illustrated Monthly Magazine of Recreation (hereafter cited as Outing) 41, no. 1 (1902), 127b.

^24. “North American Fish and Game Protective Association,” Forest and Stream: A Journal of Outdoor Life, Travel, Nature Study, Shooting, Fishing, Yachting (hereafter cited as Forest and Stream) 54, no. 7 (1900): 127; “North American Organization,” Forest and Stream 55, no. 26 (1900): 501, 510.

^25. “North American Association,” Forest and Stream 56, no. 6 (1901): 106.

^26. “Sea and River Fishing,” Forest and Stream 57, no. 25 (1901): 490.

^27. Gerald Killan, Protected Places: A History of Ontario’s Provincial Parks System (Dundurn Press Limited, 1993), 23; Chambers, ‘North American Fish and Game Protective Association,’ 380–1.

^28. “Untitled”, Forest and Stream 75, no. 15 (1910): 567. E.T.D. Chambers, “North American Fish and Game Protective Association,” Forest and Stream 74, no. 10 (1910): 380; AFS, Transactions of the American Fisheries Society at Its Fortieth Annual Meeting (Washington: 1911), 79.

^29. International Fishery Congress, 1908, Record Group 22, Box 3, Folder: International Fisheries Congress, Records Concerning Societies, Councils, Conferences, and Other Groups, 1904–37, NARA.

^30. Smith to Ward, 14 April 1914, Record Group 22, Box 1, Folder: American Fisheries Society, Records Concerning Societies, Councils, Conferences, and Other Groups, 1904–37, NARA.

^31. Carl Westerfeld to Smith, 9 April 1914, Record Group 22, Box 4, Folder: Pacific Fisheries Society, Records Concerning Societies, Councils, Conferences, and Other Groups, 1904–37, NARA.

^32. Cobb to Smith, 2 May 1914, Box 2, Folder 14, Cobb Papers; Smith to Cobb, 14 May 1914, Box 2, Folder 14, Cobb Papers; PSF, Transactions (1915), 23.

^33. Henry O’Malley to James Gould, 1 October 1925, Record Group 22, Box 15, Folder: Relations with Canada, Conferences, and Fisheries, 1922–1929 (2), Records Concerning Relations with Canada, 1905–1936, NARA; Gould to O’Malley, 13 June 1927, Record Group 22, Box 15, Folder: Relations with Canada, Conferences, and Fisheries, 1922–1929 (1), Records Concerning Relations with Canada, 1905–1936, NARA; O’Malley to Miller Freeman, 21 January 1925, Record Group 22, Box 15, Folder: Relations with Canada, Conferences, and Fisheries, 1922–1929 (2), Records Concerning Relations with Canada, 1905–1936, NARA; O’Malley to Major J.A. Motherwell, 5 January 1926, Record Group 22, Box 15, Folder: Relations with Canada, Conferences, and Fisheries, 1922–1929 (2), Records Concerning Relations with Canada, 1905–1936, NARA.

^34. Cobb to Smith, 14 June 1915, Box 2, Folder 15, Cobb Papers; Cobb to Bureau of Fisheries, 29 July 1915, Box 2, Folder 15, Cobb Papers.

^35. American Fish Culturists’ Association, Proceedings of the American Fish Culturalists’ Association (Albany, 1872), 28–32; North American Fish and Game Protective Association (hereafter cited as NAF&GPA), Transactions of the North American Fish and Game Protective Association at its Second Annual Meeting (Quebec, 1902); 3, NAF&GPA, Transactions of the Eighth Annual Meeting, (Quebec, 1908), 87; AFS, Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, Fifty-Fifth Annual Meeting (Hartford, 1925), 3, 212; AFS, Transactions of the American Fisheries Society at Its Thirty-Ninth Annual Meeting (Washington: 1910), 6.

^36. “St. Lawrence River Waters,” Forest and Stream 46, no. 3 (1896): 55; “North American Association,” Forest and Stream 56, no. 6 (1901): 106; V.R. Westervelt, “New York League,” Forest and Stream 71, no. 21 (1908): 815.

^37. AFS, Transactions of the American Fisheries Society at its Thirty-first Annual Meeting (Appleton, WI, 1902), 45–73, 97–106; AFS, Transactions of the AFS, American Fisheries Society at its Thirty-fifth Annual Meeting (Appleton, WI, 1906), 98–122; Transactions of the American Fisheries Society at its Thirty-sixth Annual Meeting (Appleton, WI, 1907), 103–4 Pacific Fisheries Society (hereafter cited as PFS), Transactions of the Pacific Fisheries Society at its First Annual Meeting (Seattle, 1915), 79–80; NAF&GPA, Transactions of the Fifth Annual Meeting (Quebec: 1905), 52–55.

^38. ‘Stocking Lake Ontario,’ 165.

^39. Redfield to Cobb, 6 April 1915, Box 2, Folder 15, Cobb Papers; Smith to Cobb, 3 May 1915, Box 2, Folder 15, Cobb Papers; Smith to John P. Babcock, 13 November 1917, Record Group 22, Box 1, Folder: Smith Papers, C, Correspondence of the Commissioner, 1913–1922, NARA.

^40. “North American Association,” Forest and Stream 55, no. 26 (1900): 510.

^41. “North American Fish and Game Protective Association,” Forest and Stream 58, no. 5 (1902): 89.

^42. NAF&GPA, Transactions … Eighth Annual Meeting, 46. C.H. Wilson, “North American Association,” Forest and Stream 58, no. 11 (1902): 213.

^43. “Net-Fishing in Lake Champlain,” Forest and Stream 58, no. 9 (1902): 171.

^44. L.J. Tweedie, “Lake Champlain Fishing”, Forest and Stream 60, no. 8 (1905): 159. “Politics Versus Protection,” Forest and Stream 58, no. 14 (1902): 269.

^45. “Lake Champlain Net Fishing,” Forest and Stream 59, no. 24 (1902): 471.

^46. Chambers, “Fish and Fishing,” Forest and Stream 64, no. 5 (1905): 98.

^47. “Fish and Fishing,” Forest and Stream 64, no. 5 (1905): 177.

^48. “Seining in Missisquoi Bay,” Forest and Stream 66, no. 13 (1906): 509.

^49. NAF&GPA, Transactions … Eighth Annual, 8–9.

^50. Dorsey, Dawn of Conservation Diplomacy 59–60. “Fisheries Squabble,” Boston Daily Globe, April 8, 1907, 5; “Objects to Seine Fishing,” Washington Post, April 8, 1907, 4; “Seining in Missisquoi Bay,” April 20, 1907, 621.

^51. Further Correspondence Respecting Proceedings for the Settlement of Questions Between the United States and Canada (Ottawa, 1908), 47–49

^52. ASF, Transactions of the American Fisheries Society … Thirty-Seventh Annual Meeting (Appleton: 1908), 13–15.

^53. Dorsey, Dawn of Conservation Diplomacy, 51–58, 61.

^54. ASF, Transactions … Thirty-Seventh Annual Meeting, 14–15, 25.

^55. David Starr Jordan to William E. Meehan, 23 October 1908, Record Group 22, Box 2, Folder: International Fisheries Commission Work of the Commission, Records Concerning Relations with Canada, 1905–1936, NARA; Chambers, ‘North American Fish and Game Protective Association,’ 380.

^56. Jordan to Cobb, 10 October 1908, Box 2, Folder 4, Cobb Papers; Jordan to Cobb, 4 November 1908, Box 2, Folder 4, Cobb Papers.; Jordan to Cobb, 7 October 1909, Box 2, Folder 4; Jordan to George M. Bowers, 16 May 1911, Record Group 22, Box 1, Folder: International Fisheries Commission Correspondence, 1909–1911, Records Concerning Relations with Canada, NARA.

^57. “Great Lake Fisheries,” New York Times, November 10, 1903, 10; “Commission at Eastport,” Boston Daily Globe, July 7, 1908. AFS, Transactions (1904), 245; AFS, Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, July 27–28, 1909 (Washington: 1910), 53–54; AFS, Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 48, no. 1 (1918), 218.

^58. Seymour Bowen to Barton Evermann, 14 December 1908, Record Group 22, Box 2, Folder: International Fisheries Treaties and Related Materials, Records Concerning Relations with Canada, 1905–1936, NARA.

^59. Dorsey, Dawn of Conservation Diplomacy 61–75; AFS, Transactions of the American Fisheries Society at its Forty-Third Annual Meeting (New York: 1914), 31.

^60. “Treaty Between the United States and Great Britain Relating to Fisheries in the Waters of the United States and Canada,” FRUS, 1908, Vol. I, 380.

^61. “Testing the Border Waters,” Washington Post, November 22, 1912; “The Activities of the International Joint Commission: 1909–1956,” Department of Northern Affairs and National Resources, http://www.ijc.org/files/publications/A63.pdf (accessed November 1, 2020); Lovell C. Clark, ed. Documents on Canadian External Relations, Volume 3: 1919 –1925 (Ottawa, 1970), 227–8; Alexander DeConde, Richard Dean Burns, and Fredrik Logevall, ed. Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy, Volume 2 (New York, 2002), 51–52; Macfarlane and Clamen, ed. The First Century of the International Joint Commission.

^62. Manton M. Wyvell, “Peace Between Canada and the United States,” Advocate of Peace through Justice 83, no. 7 (1921): 254; “Canada and the United States: An International Commission,” Pacific Affairs 2, no. 1 (1929): 33.

^63. American-Canadian Fisheries Conference (Washington, D.C., 1918), 7; “The Fisheries Conference,” Science 47, no. 1206 (1918), 137; “The Secretary of Commerce (Redfield) to the Secretary of State,” FRUS, 1918, October 4, 1917; “The Secretary of State to the Secretary of Commerce (Redfield),” FRUS, 1918, October 19 1917.

^64. “Decide Date of Fisheries Conference,” Daily Alaska Dispatch, February 21, 1918; AFS, Transactions 46, 183, 203; AFS, Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 48, no. 1 (1918), 107; AFS, Transactions … Forty-Third Annual, 31, NAF&GPA, Transactions … Eighth Annual, 3; Hazen, Sir John Douglas, Dictionary of Canadian Biography, http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/hazen_john_douglas_16E.html (accessed February 13, 2023).

^65. Smith to Redfield, 23 April 1918, Record Group 22, Box 5, Folder: Salmon Fisheries of the Fraser River and Puget Sound (2), Records Concerning Relations with Canada, 1905–36, NARA.

^66. Smith to Warren, 3 June 1918, Record Group 22, Box 5, Folder: Salmon Fisheries of the Fraser River and Puget Sound (3), Records Concerning Relations with Canada, 1905–36, NARA.

^67. “Report of the American-Canadian Fisheries Conference, 1918” FRUS, 1918, 439–80.

^68. American-Canadian Fisheries Conference, 3–8.

^69. Salmon Fisheries (1) Smith to O’Malley, 7 February 1919, Record Group 22, Salmon Fisheries (1); William Crawford to Smith, 10 May 1918, Record Group 22, Box 5, Folder: Salmon Fisheries of the Fraser River and Puget Sound (3), Records Concerning Relations with Canada, 1905–1936, NARA; Found to Smith, 29 September 1920, Record Group 22, Box 5, Folder: Salmon Fisheries of the Fraser River and Puget Sound (1), NARA.

^70. “The Secretary of State to President Wilson,” FRUS, 1919, Vol. I, 1919, 229–36. Clark, Documents, xiv, AFS, Transactions of the American Fisheries Society (Hartford: 1924), 212; “Coming to Sign Treaty,” New York Times, August 28, 1919. “Memorandum by the Assistant Solicitor for the Department of State (Vallance),” FRUS, 1920 Vol. I, May 25, 1920, 388–9; ‘The British Ambassador A.C. Geddes to Acting Secretary of State,’ FRUS, 1920, Vol. I, December 28, 1920, 388–389.

^71. ‘Babcock, John Pease,’ Dictionary of Canadian Biography, http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/babcock_john_pease_16E.html (accessed February 10, 2023).

^72. Investigation of Fraser River Sockeye Spawning Areas and Suggestions for Restoring the Supply, n.d., Record Group 22, Salmon Fisheries (1), 9–11.

^73. AFS, Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, Fiftieth Annual Meeting (Washington, D.C., 1920), 240–6; John P. Babcock, Fraser River Salmon Situation: A Reclamation Project (Victoria, B.C., 1920), 1–11.

^74. “Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover to Secretary of State Hughes,” FRUS, 1921, Vol. I, March 9, 1921.

^75. “Memorandum from the British Embassy to the Department of State,” July 14, 1921, FRUS, 1921 Vol. I, 290–1.

^76. “Secretary of State Hughes to British Ambassador Geddes,” March 28, 1922, FRUS, 1922, Vol. I, 671–3.

^77. “Convention between the United States of America and Great Britain,” March 2, 1923, FRUS, 1923, Vol. I, 468.

^78. “Congressmen Invited to Alaska Fisheries,” New York Times, March 8, 1923, 9; PFS, Transactions of the Pacific Fisheries Society at its Second Annual Meeting (Seattle, 1916), 101.

^79. “Convention between the United States of America and Great Britain,” March 2, 1923, FRUS, 1923, Vol. I, 468–71; Report of the Commissioner of Fisheries (Victoria, B.C., 1923), K-54; Babcock et al, Reports of the International Fisheries Commission Appointed Under Northern Pacific Halibut Treaty (Washington, 1930), 1. PFS, Transactions … , 101, AFS, Transactions … Fifty-Fifth Annual Meeting, 201.

^80. Proceedings of Meeting of Fisheries Executives of the Pacific Coast, 17 March 1925, Record Group 22, Box 11, Folder: International Fisheries Commission Hearings (2), Records Concerning Relations with Canada, 1905–36, NARA.

^81. A. Lawrence Lowell, “Is Canada Independent?” The Washington Post, June 23, 1924.

^82. “Report of the International Fisheries Commission Appointed Under the Northern Pacific Halibut Treaty” FRUS, 1928, Vol. II, May 31 1928, 7.

^83. Clark, Documents, 230–231.

^84. “Secretary of State Hughes to President Harding,” 18 June 1923, FRUS, 1923, Vol. I, 472–3, 480.

^85. “Urge Speed on Halibut Treaty” New York Times, 20 November 1923.

^86. “British Ambassador Esme Howard to Secretary of State Hughes,” FRUS, 1924, Vol. I, 28 May 1924, 341.

^87. “Formal Report of the International Fisheries Commission,” FRUS, 1928, Vol. II, May 31, 1928, 7–28.

^88. “The Fisheries Report,” New York Times, December 29, 1929.

^89. “Secretary of State Hughes to Canadian Chargé H.H. Wrong,” August 2, 1928, FRUS, 1928, Vol. II, 28–30. F. Heward Bell, “Report of the International Pacific Halibut Commission, Number 50” (Seattle: 1969), 15.

^90. Freeman to O’Malley, 10 December 1924, Record Group 22, Box 15, Folder: Relations with Canada, Conferences, and Fisheries, 1922–1929 (2), Records Concerning Relations with Canada, 1905–1936, NARA; Freeman to O’Malley, 13 January 1925, Record Group 22, Box 15, Folder: Relations with Canada, Conferences, and Fisheries, 1922–1929 (2), Records Concerning Relations with Canada, 1905–1936, NARA.

^91. O’Malley to Freeman, 21 January 1925, Record Group 22, Box 15, Folder: Relations with Canada, Conferences, and Fisheries, 1922–1929 (2), Records Concerning Relations with Canada, 1905–1936, NARA.

^92. Freeman to O’Malley, 13 January 1925, Record Group 22, Box 15, Folder: Relations with Canada, Conferences, and Fisheries, 1922–1929 (2), Records Concerning Relations with Canada, 1905–1936, NARA.

^93. “British Ambassador Herbert Brooks to Secretary of State Kellogg,” August 19, 1926, FRUS, 1928, Vol. II, 31–35

^94. “Convention Between the United States of America and Canada,” FRUS, 1929, Vol. II, March 27, 1929, 55.

^95. “The British Ambassador (Howard) to the Secretary of State,” FRUS, 1927, Vol. I, June 7, 1926, 513–4.

^96. Herbert Hoover to Charles E. Hughes, 5 April 1923, Record Group 22, Box 4, Folder: Missisquoi Bay Fisheries, Lake Champlain, 1905–1930 (2), Records Concerning Relations with Canada, 1905–1936, NARA; Frank L. Greene to Frank B. Kellogg, 5 April 1926, Record Group 22, Box 4, Folder: Missisquoi Bay Fisheries, Lake Champlain, 1905–1930, Records Concerning Relations with Canada, 1905–1936, NARA.

^97. “Secretary of State Kellogg to Minister in Canada William Phillips,” FRUS, 1928, Vol. I, May 9, 1928, 38–39, 42–46.

^98. O.D. Skelton to William Phillips, 16 June 1928, Box 4, Folder: Missisquoi Bay, Lake Champlain, 1905–1930 (1), Records Concerning Relations with Canada, 1905–1936, NARA.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Brandon Kinney

Brandon Kinney is a Ph.D. candidate at Temple University studying American diplomatic history in the twentieth century. He was the 2019–2020 recipient of the Thomas Davis Fellowship in Diplomacy and Foreign Relations at the Center for the Study of Force and Diplomacy at Temple University and a 2020 History Education Fellow at the Foreign Policy Research Institute in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.