Strength, gender, and volunteering: the lived experiences of Para-powerlifters in the Republic of Ireland

Abstract

This study provides the first meaningful examination of para-powerlifting in Ireland. A sport practiced around the world, para-powerlifting has not yet received a great deal of academic attention despite research done in related fields such as wheelchair bodybuilding (Sparkes, Brighton, and Inckle 2018). Irish para-powerlifting is distinguished by the fact that the competitors are women operating in a hyper-masculine space. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with athletes, coaches, parents and former volunteers. Interviews revealed the following: (i) athletes face material and ideological barriers to participation; (ii) entrance pathways stemmed predominantly from wheelchair basketball (iii) para-powerlifting had a beneficial crossover in athletes’ daily lives (iv) participation changed athletes’ relationships with their own bodies and (v) gender played a key role in staying in, or leaving, the sport. We conclude that while para-powerlifting is not unique in suffering from a lack of resources, efforts to maintain and increase female participation help to subvert traditional masculine tropes within this sport For policymakers, para-powerlifting simultaneously highlights the need to take seriously accessibility in Ireland while also offering an opportunity to invest in a sport with the potential to earn medals in competition.

Points of interest

• While Ireland ratified the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disability in 2018, accessibility issues are common for those attempting to exercise

• Para-powerlifting fundamentally changed the manner in which athletes viewed their bodies and gendered identities.

• Para-powerlifting in Ireland currently only has female athletes and is attempting to recruit more women through dedicated ‘women in sport’ pathways

• Due to the small international field of athletes involved, investment in para-powerlifting could yield medal dividends for the Republic of Ireland

Keywords:

• Para-powerlifting
• gender
• Ireland
• strength
• fitness

Introduction

Fitness, strength, and bodybuilding cultures represent a liminal space within disability research. Fitness and strength cultures often valorize lean, muscular, white physiques without recourse to the multiplicity of bodies found exercising (Sparkes, Brighton, and Inckle 2018; Walsh 2020). Research on gyms has found that gyms can be exclusionary spaces due to a lack of specialized equipment, ill-informed personal trainers, unwelcoming atmospheres, and poorly designed facilities (Richardson, Smith, and Papathomas 2017; Sharon-David, Siekanska, and Tenenbaum 2021). Yet, at the same time, sport and exercise can have very positive effects on individuals’ sense of wellbeing, health, and social relationships (Van der Ploeg et al. 2004). Indeed, a 2006 report on physical activity and quality of life in the Republic of Ireland was unequivocal that physical activity brought ‘enormous benefits’ to people with disabilities (Hannon, Fitzsimon, and Kelleher 2006). The present research, on paralympic powerlifting, sits within this liminality. A competitive sport which dates to the 1964 Tokyo Paralympic Games, para-powerlifting is a strength competition centered around a single exercise, the bench press. With legs strapped to a specialized bench, and lying flat on their backs, athletes lower a loaded barbell down to their chest and, in a controlled manner, push the barbell back to the starting position. While the exercise itself is relatively simple, the technique required is complex and necessitates strict control during every part of the movement.

Previous academic work on para-powerlifting has tended to come from sport science, rather than sociology (van den Hoek et al. 2022). Due to the body mechanics involved, a great deal of work has focused on the power output of athletes, the injuries athletes incur in the sport, and rehabilitation protocols (Mashkovskiy et al. 2016). Where social scientists have studied para-powerlifting, they have tended to do so with individual case studies. Thus, work on media representation of para-athletes during the 2014 Commonwealth Games, devoted space to Micky Yule, a British Paralympian and military veteran. In such work Yule discussed the desire to push the boundaries of his sport, and his body, in a manner which reinforced traditional masculine archetypes (McPherson et al. 2016). This can be contrasted with Anaurene’s case study involving Malaysian para-powerlifting, which focused on the tension an athlete felt between their femininity and athletic success, as well as their disability and their body. Excellent though these studies are, a great deal more work is needed in this realm.

In the Republic of Ireland, para-powerlifting is still a niche sport, which, at the time of research, boasted two active competitors and one junior competitor. Although affiliated with the Irish Weightlifting Federation, the sport is not yet well funded, and relies extensively on the volunteer efforts of coaches and family members. Furthermore, the athletes themselves are spread throughout the country, and oftentimes struggle to train together. Despite these barriers the sport appears to be growing with coaches and administrators confident in increasing the number of participants and support structures in the coming years. This is especially so after one athlete received positive media attention following their performances at an international event. While much of this media discourse fed into ‘supercrip’ narratives, or those which presented the athlete as their disability, media attention can be transformational for smaller sports like para-powerlifting (Silva and Howe 2012).

The niche aspects of para-powerlifting, and its demographics mark it as a particularly interesting case study for those interested in sporting participation, gender, and athletes’ sense of self. Conducting interviews with paralympic coaches, athletes, former coaches, and parents, this article focused on three distinct issues: participatory barriers, the athletes’ relationships with their own bodies and the role of masculinity and femininity within the sport. Para-powerlifting in Ireland is particularly unique because all participating athletes are women. This, as Anaurene’s research on a single female powerlifter found, runs in contrast to the typically masculine space powerlifting operates in. Consistent training and the monitoring of the diet, pre-requisites for competing, help to build strength and muscle mass, lower bodyfat and redefine the shape of the body. This can impact athlete identity, be it increased confidence or, as Pack, Kelly, and Arvinen-Barrow (2017) found, tension surrounding one’s gendered self.

Article 30.5 of the United Nation’s CPRD enshrines the rights of citizens’ access to take part in a cultural life ‘on an equal basis with others’ (CRPD 2006 online). Participation in cultural activities such as recreation, leisure, the arts, tourism and sport enrich lives and provides multiple avenues for an individual’s choice and freedoms of expression. Article 9 of the CRPD, sets down the broad scope of accessibility. However, internationally disabled athletes face multiple barriers when accessing sport, and daily struggles to negotiate access are not spared on para-powerlifters. While design, planning and construction standards of sport facilities interact with antidiscrimination or disability discrimination legislation in many international contexts, including the Republic of Ireland it is important that we understand access as more than inclusive architecture. According to Nind and Seale (2009) access is a socially constructed term that needs to go above and beyond ramps, regulations, and compliance. Access involves a mutual endeavour that involves negotiation between stakeholders. ‘Access is not just about buildings; a truly accessible environment is one in which a person with a disability can freely express their independence, and one in which any impediment to integration is removed’ (Darcy 2001, 74).

This paper thus addresses three distinct literature areas – disability support in the Republic of Ireland, body awareness and gender identity. In the realm of sport, disability support and participation fall well below its nondisabled equivalents. The 2021 Irish Sport Monitor, produced by Sport Ireland, the primary body involved in the promotion of sport in the Republic of Ireland, found that although sporting participation for those with a disability rose briefly during the period 2015-2021, work is needed in prompting and supporting those with a disability. At present it is estimated that ‘almost three-quarters of those with a disability do not participate regularly in sport’ (Sport Ireland 2021). And while calls for greater support were made in the 2019 Irish Sport Monitor; little has been done to address this issue. Tellingly sections from the Sport Ireland National Participation Plan for 2021-2024 regarding those with physical disabilities is focused primarily on increasing supports and reducing barriers to sport’ (Sport Ireland 2021). Lack of support is an ongoing issue for those with a disability in general. While Ireland ratified the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities in 2018, the same year Ireland hosted the 2018 World Para Swimming European Championships, Doyle (2021) has noted the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on disability support services within the Republic. While Doyle (2021) ended their critique with an acknowledgment that additional funding had been promised, research on other areas of Irish society reaffirms the often secondary, if not forgotten role, that those with a disability have in Ireland (Scanlon, Kamp, and Cochrane 2020). This is certainly the case for para-powerlifters who face accessibility issues when it comes to their training. As is revealed in the interviews, many athletes struggle to enter commercial gyms due to their inhospitable architecture. Where athletes can enter a gym, they are often faced with a complete dearth of wheelchair and/or mobility assistance machinery. This has a direct impact on their ability to compete.

Connected to this research is, of course, the vast volume of work related to paralympic sport and the tension surrounding the ‘super-crip.’ Defined by Berger (2008) as ‘those individuals whose inspirational stories of courage, dedication, and hard work prove that it can be done, that one can defy the odds and accomplish the impossible,’ the ‘super-crip’ narrative fits neatly with para-powerlifting as athletes lift, at times ineffably, heavy weights. In a bio-medical study of para-powerlifting, van den Hoek et al. (2022) cited the sport as one of the few instances in which, pound-for-pound, Paralympians outperform their nondisabled counterparts. Over-adhering to this narrative can, however, reinforce harmful stereotypes for disabled bodies, particularly those deemed to have ‘failed’ to adhere to this image. Furthermore, it should be noted that fitness communities more generally, have been defined as spaces infused with a self-help rhetoric which castigates those who fail to match predetermined norms (Edgely, Edgely, and Turner 1982). This same rhetoric can be acutely felt in paralympic sports wherein a great deal of rhetoric is centered on those athletes who succeed in ‘overcoming’ their disability (Berger 2008; Silva and Howe 2012). While the athletes and coaches interviewed here align, in part with this narrative, they displayed a much more nuanced understanding of societal and structural issues than is at times displayed within their sport.

What then, does a study of para-powerlifting in Ireland add to our knowledge of paralympic sport and athletes? The first area, somewhat obviously, relates to issues of gender which have tended to focus on masculinity in strength spaces. Studied in this way, the article sheds light on the gender binary within para-strength sports and, in doing so, provides a space for more exploration in this vein. Relating to literature on the Republic of Ireland, athletes’ experiences highlight the lived consequences of the Republic’s lax enforcement of accessibility laws and promises, especially in the realm of sport. Finally, when discussing the ‘super-crip’ narrative, the athletes, and coaches here provided a more nuanced understanding of their own embodiment. While many aligned to a ‘super-crip’ narrative, it was often couched in the recognition of broader inequities in sporting access and opportunity in the island.

Methodology

This study used a qualitative research approach to garner its answers. The reasons for doing so were twofold. First, the research was interested in the lived experiences of the athletes themselves thus it was decided early on that a qualitative approach would give greater attention to the athletes’ voices. Second, it was felt that in line with best practice (Read, Blackburn, and Spencer 2010), the small number of competing athletes in the Republic of Ireland precluded quantitative methods. At the outset, the researchers were interested in addressing the following research questions: (1) What are the social, environmental, and psychological barriers athletes encounter, in terms of equipment, financing, coaching and support?; (2) What impact, if any, has para-powerlifting had on athletes’ perceptions and understandings of their own bodies?; (3) What differences, if any, exist between men’s and women’s powerlifting either in terms of coaching, expectations or support? This project was situated in an interpretivist-constructivist paradigm which views life as open to subjective interpretation which is based on the social construction of reality.

Participants

This study was part of a wider, and ongoing, project investigating the experiences of para-powerlifters in the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom. Due to the funding and support imbalances between the Republic of Ireland, and Great Britain (the latter is far more professional in its structures), a decision was taken to study the Republic as a standalone case. Participants from the Republic of Ireland were divided into two pools – athletes and support networks. All participants interviewed were over the age of eighteen, and in the case of one junior athlete (aged 16), a guardian was interviewed as a proxy. The average age of participants was 26.5 years old, with an age range from 19 to 46. Seven participants in total were interviewed as part of the Irish cohort. They were two athletes, one parent, two coaches, a former coach and a coaching member of Team GB who was qualified to compare both the Irish and British structures. The former coach, who dropped out of the sport for financial reasons, was included in the hope of providing an alternative opinion to those still active.

Recruitment

Prior to commencing the recruitment of participants and data collection, the researchers were granted ethical approval by the anon university ethics committee. Participants were purposively sampled and recruited via the researchers’ contacts in the Irish Paralympic community. An appropriate gatekeeper was identified from the coaching staff who subsequently facilitated recruitment of participants across the various sample categories. If individuals connected to para-powerlifting (be they coaches, athletes or support networks) expressed an interest in the study, their details were passed on to the researchers. Participants were then contacted by the researchers.

Data collection

This study utilized a life story approach through the prism of online videotelephone technology (Zoom, Skype, Teams etc.). As a methodology, life story is a dynamic and recursive process between researcher and participant that constructs a narrative in a collaborative fashion, utilizing multiple data sources such as one-on-one interviews and observations. Using life stories, the researchers used a portal approach wherein the life story was used to learn about broader societal trends and issues (Linde 1993). Interviews were conducted with the investigators in a once off interview detailing their life story. Owing to COVID-19 concerns, and the athlete’s busy schedules, interviews were conducted online. Interviews took place during the summer of 2021, shortly after the 2020 Tokyo Paralympics. Discussions were recorded for later transcription and lasted between 45 to 90 min. The audio-recordings of the interviews were transcribed to prepare the data for analysis. Researchers assigned letters to participant recordings to preserve their identity.

Interviews were semi-structured. For Brinkmann and Kvale (2015), semi-structured interviews require the researcher to use a set of predetermined questions to prompt the interviewee into communicating their opinions, experiences, emotions, and beliefs about themes that the researcher would like to know more about. The researchers therefore prepared a set of predetermined interview questions that guided the interview process through the key research themes around body knowledge, access, and gender. As the interviews progressed, researchers were able to draw on previous responses from other participants to see what, if any, differences existed in opinions regarding accessibility and gender.

Data analysis

Qualitative data derived through online semi-structured interviews was transcribed and exposed to thematic analysis throughout the research process. A reflexive thematic analysis was used for to identify and analyze patterns within the date, (Braun and Clarke, 2020, 4). Thematic coding was used to categorize preliminary data into meaningful and applicable themes based on dominant patterns (Molnar and Purdy 2016). The analytic procedure of thematic coding involved a series of inductive and deductive processes, which may be labelled as abductive. Such a procedure was followed because the aims of the study were to understand the lived experiences of para-athletes; to explore the various social, environmental, and psychological barriers they encounter; and the gendered elements within the sport. Categories were developed based on the research questions. The initial categories were 1) life before participating in para-powerlifting, 2) entry into the sport, 3) barriers to participation, and 5) training methods 6) Training crossover into everyday life 7) Differences in men’s and women’s participation 8) Future of the sport. Themes were identified based on whether they were seen to capture something of defining importance in relation to the overall research aim and questions (Braun and Clarke, 2020). Throughout this process the researchers were guided by the latest six phases of thematic analysis outlined by Braun and Clarke (2020, 4).

Findings

The results describe the experiences of athletes, coaches and family members involved in para-powerlifting in the Republic of Ireland: practical constraints for the sport, entrance pathways, cross-over benefits, improved body awareness and the differences between men’s and women’s para-powerlifting.

Practical constraints

Given the wider state of disability sport in Ireland (Sport Ireland 2021), it was unsurprising that all participants cited the practical barriers and constraints which existed in the pursuit of their sport. Such points can be divided between those related to the sport itself, and then participation in this sport. Coaches, past and present, highlighted sporting barriers which they felt slowed the sport’s growth and popularity. Participant A, for example, cited the transport and financial constraints which exist within the sport. At the time of writing, there is no national championship on the island of Ireland, this means that athletes are forced to compete abroad if they wish to qualify for larger international tournaments. And while some funding exists for athletes who can compete at international events, a point noted by Participant G, there is a systemic lack of funding for athletes in general. This is exacerbated by the fact that ‘a lot of the top competitions are on in the Middle East and, and Asia, and there’s a considerable expense for athletes and coaches to go to these competitions’ (Participant A). This was thought by some participants (A, G and D) to be limiting the sport’s appeal, as individuals could be potentially discouraged from competing at an elite level.

Regardless of whether the interviewees were discussing elite or recreational para-powerlifting, geography and facilities were a key problem. Although para-powerlifting had recently gained affiliation with the Irish Weightlifting Federation, a relationship Participant A and G believed would benefit the sport, athletes struggled to train together as a team. This was exacerbated by the Covid-19 pandemic which prevented team gatherings but even prior to this point, the lack of a national training center, or affiliated gym, caused problems. A common theme among athletes, and coaches, was that participation was only made possible thanks to the dedication of volunteers, who drove several hours a week to oversee training. Participant G summed it thusly.

They’re [the athletes] also dotted all over Ireland, that the few athletes that we have, and they cover kind of nearly every corner of Ireland. So, to try and get them together was a barrier. And then pandemic hit shortly after …

Exacerbating this problem is the fact that gyms in Ireland often lack the specialized equipment needed to train effectively. While nondisabled and para-powerlifters both use the same weights (a barbell and barbell plates), para-powerlifting requires a specialized bench in competition which is wider than a non-adapted bench and has straps attached to keep athletes secured. Additionally, para-powerlifters require wheelchair accessible, or modified, machines to train different muscle groups. Such equipment is commonplace for elite athletes in Great Britain, a point Participant F was keen to stress, but is almost entirely lacking in Ireland. Prior to, and during, the Covid-19 pandemic athletes were required to purchase their own specialized equipment to train at home. For some, this represented a commitment to the sport, in the face of barriers.

So, we got a bench over in England. And we’ve been kind of buying bits of equipment all the time, you know, we’re on ‘DoneDeal’ [an online marketplace], and we’re doing all that, getting picked up here and there … if you’re in it, you’re in it, you find a way (Participant B).

Despite the pride athletes and coaches took in being able to ‘find a way’ around these constraints, they were all keenly aware of the problems this created. Participant D noted that despite being in the sport for several years, they still ‘did not have access to the machines their coaches needed them to have.’ Likewise Participant E stressed that the inability to access machines, or to train in the same facility, meant that athletes were limiting the kind of progress they could make. This was not a trivial issue as Participant C had, for many years, been forced to train in commercial gyms, and on non-disabled benches, before being asked to compete on the specialized para-benches in competition.

Finally on this point, access to commercial gyms can prove equally difficult. The Disability Act 2005 and Equal Status Acts 2000 – 2018 in the Republic of Ireland require buildings, and societies to make reasonable accommodations for individuals with a disability (Randaccio 2020). This ranges from preventing or eliminating discrimination to making the entry to buildings accessible. As Participant G noted, many gym owners lease their properties in Ireland and, ‘unless that property was built after a certain date,’ reasonable accommodations may not be possible. Participants B, C, D and E all cited gyms with little to no wheelchair access, narrow corridors and, at times, reluctant coaches. Participant C, an active powerlifting coach and competitor, noted their initial reluctance in training a para-athlete due to their inexperience. Likewise Participant G stressed the.

the reluctancy of coaches who come from non-disability gyms and non-disability strength sports or personal trainers, they’re reluctant to get involved in disability, because it’s the scary thing

Such comments echo the findings of Richardson, Smith, and Papathomas (2017), in highlighting the subtle barriers which may exist among coaches, gym owners and personal trainers around trainees in wheelchairs or with mobility issues. More fundamentally it highlights the weaknesses of disability discrimination legislation and its inadequate determination of reasonable adjustments. Access is more than a ramp or a better entrance, it is an attitude and approach that strives to create ever more inclusive spaces (Nind and Seale 2009). In this study, athletes found that getting into the gym is only the start but it is inadequate interior design and gym equipment which pose restrictive barriers limiting expression and access, and as a consequence choice and participation.

Existing and future pathways

As Haslett et al. (2020) found, para-sports in Ireland are growing in popularity. To date, 28 combined summer and winter sports are offered within the Republic. This explains why, powerlifting was not the first sport the athletes had experienced. One former athlete had been involved in wheelchair racing for twenty years before transitioning to para-powerlifting. Of the three actives athletes, two were involved in wheelchair basketball, while the third had trialed multiple sports before coming to para-powerlifting. Wheelchair basketball has emerged as a pathway for existing and potential athletes. Participant D, for example, recalled being part of a basketball blitz and encountering a coach scouting prospective athletes for powerlifting. For Participant B, who participates in both wheelchair basketball and para-powerlifting, wheelchair basketball was an obvious site for potential para-powerlifters due to the popularity and size of the sport. Despite the prohibitive costs of appropriate wheelchairs, wheelchair basketball was cited by participants as a popular para-sport in Ireland due to its accessibility. When questioned about any crossover the wheelchair basketball may have for para-powerlifting, coaches and athletes were both in agreement that very little clear benefits existed. The allure of wheelchair basketball was simply the size of the athlete pool.

In terms of recruiting future athletes Participants A and E both suggested that wheelchair basketball would continue to be used to recruit for the sport. Put simply, wheelchair basketball represented the easiest means of interacting with hundreds of prospective athletes. Participant A was well known within the community and had forged several strong contacts with parents and coaches. This was evidenced in Participant B’s recollection that although initially having little interest in para-powerlifting, they were convinced to trial it following sustained prompting from Participant A. The need to rely on wheelchair basketball for athletes stemmed, in part, from the lack of official pathways into the sport. As previous research on British para-powerlifting (Richardson, Smith, and Papathomas 2017), and responses from this own project, found (Participant F), British athletes, and in particular, military veterans, are made aware of para-powerlifting through multiple campaigns, open days, and tournaments. The contrast between the Irish and British structures was, in Participant F’s retelling, the difference between a highly professional organization and an amateur club run by tireless volunteers.

Participant A and E both proved hopeful that the creation of national competitions in the Republic in the coming years would result in more exposure for the sport and a greater pool of athletes. Additionally, Participant E believed that a unique opportunity existed in recruiting more female athletes. Since Ireland’s two elite athletes are women, Participant E was keen to capitalize on women in sport programs within the Republic of Ireland to promote para-powerlifting as a suitable outlet for women. This runs somewhat counter to the traditional norms around powerlifting which, as Denham (2008), found, tend to be overtly masculine spaces. This suggests that para-powerlifting in Ireland has the potential, then, to become an area of best practice for those seeking to address gender inequities in traditionally masculine sports. Whether or not para-powerlifting will be successful in this endeavor remains to be seen.

Crossover benefits

As a pursuit, para-powerlifting can both enhance, and limit, athletes’ mobility outside of the sport. While it is well established that increased strength and cardiovascular health can aid individuals in their daily life (be it transferring in and out of a wheelchair, maintaining a balanced health profile, or recovering from injuries), para-powerlifting places very sport specific strains on the athlete’s body. Indeed, it is telling that most of the scholarly research on para-powerlifting has been done in the context of sport medicine or science (Ona et al. 2019). The lift used in competition, the bench press, places significant strain on the athletes’ chest and shoulder muscles and, depending on the technique employed, the back muscles to a lesser degree. Likewise, the positioning of the bar has the potential to strain wrist, elbow, and shoulder joints. This is to say nothing of the individual mobility issues athletes bring to the sport. This is especially the case when heavier weights are employed as the ability to maintain the proper form needed to avoid injury can be compromised either through repetitive training or in the pursuit of a new record. For this reason, athletes and coaches proved cautious about ensuring that the risks involved with the sport were minimized.

Participant A, who has experience with coaching and competing, noted that although they had undergone three operations on their shoulders, they felt this was due to genetic imbalances rather than by any damage caused by para-powerlifting. Nevertheless, the same coach stressed that they spent a great deal of time teaching athletes exercises which could mitigate the risks involved. This was collaborated by Participant B, who recalled their child spending countless hours doing preventative exercises to strengthen their core and shoulders because ‘that was part of the sport.’ Participant C detailed the need to work ‘the pectoralis, major, minor, anterior deltoids, the triceps … [and] the muscles of the trunk.’ As Participant A and G were anxious to avoid injury, active competitors proved very conscious about the need not to train or compete when injured. This philosophy runs counter to the typical overcompliance to the sports ethic wherein athletes can compete when injured to maintain or prove their commitment (Hughes and Coakley 1991). For Participant B and C, this adherence to not training when injured stemmed from the coaches’ own teachings and the ability to ‘train around’ the injury by focusing on other muscle groups.

All participants agreed that the strength built in para-powerlifting clearly transferred into their daily lives. Participant B stressed that.

if you are able to get in and out of the chair and onto equipment and off and the whole lot, you couldn’t be doing anything better

Participant D recalled their doctors informing them of the need to lose weight and strength their muscles to alleviate their pain. Para-powerlifting allowed them to do this – ‘Powerlifting helped me lose weight and be more active… I don’t know my strength anymore.’ This brought with it less pain, increased confidence, and a better health profile. Participant E was the strongest in eulogizing about the sport’s benefits.

It’s just made me stronger. Like it’s just made me stronger to even live independentlyand stuff. It’s an incredible sport…

Body awareness

The specific nature of para-powerlifting also had a clear impact on athlete’s own body awareness and proprioception. Although simple in nature – the bench press involves lowering a barbell to the chest and then pushing it skyward – para-powerlifting is a highly technical sport. Competitors are given a start command by judges and must then lower the bar to their chests in as controlled a manner as possible, pause once the barbell touches the chest and then presses it upwards until their elbows are fully locked (or as close to this position as possible given individual’s mobility capacities). The lift is finished once the reference issues a ‘rack’ command. As Participant C made clear, this form of lifting is vastly different to the kind practiced by those outside of strength sports. The need for control throughout the lift ensures that the athlete’s concentration and strength are under incredible demand. Participant D initially struggled to train their body in this regard noting that the ‘balance between nerves and focus’ was different to achieve. Likewise, although they had some experience training in a gym prior to this time, the strict boundaries of the sport initially made the exercise seem near impossible.

This was the initial problem, not knowing how to keep it [the barbell] straight … the bar wobbling all the time, especially when I was trying to lower the thing … there must be a two second pause at the bottom … like once it hits the chest… that’s it… there can be no knicks in the wrist, no wobble… no nothing. It’s incredibly stressful when you’re on that platform trying to have technique … if there’s a slight bounce or the bar curve changes that’s a fail

The same athlete went on to note that ‘as I got stronger … [and] got used to the lift, the technique got better. I was more stable with heavier weights.’ To get to the point where the athlete felt comfortable, and in control of their body, it took three years of consistent training. This process introduced the athlete to new terms and sensations such as the ‘sticking point’, the term commonly used by strength athletes to denote the part of the movement in which a barbell seems to get stuck when the athlete attempts to push it upwards from the chest. Overcoming the ‘sticking point’ required the athlete to develop their own bodily awareness. This involved stopping mid-lift in training, videotaping their attempts, and watching others to improve their technique. While intensive, such efforts were deemed necessary due to the sport’s rigors. Indeed, Participant C was forthright that the strict technique in para-powerlifting (which Participant G deemed even stricter than non-disabled powerlifting) required athletes to ‘constantly monitor their body… to keep everything tight under heavy loads … yeah it’s a completely alien way of understanding your body and how it moves.’.

An athlete’s own mobility necessitated adaptions. Participant C’s restricted elbow and wrist mobility meant that they couldn’t fully straighten (‘lock out’) their arms. Instead, they had to reach an agreed upon range of motion decided upon by the judges prior to competing. Participant E’s spinal mobility meant that they had to favor their right side and ‘compensate’ with the left side of the body. They felt that although ‘imbalanced because of my [disability] … I can improve … I can do prehab exercises … I can adapt … I knew I had a weak side … now I work with it.’ Rather than a problem, the athlete stated that this ‘weakness’ forced them to tune into their body more, to develop a new awareness of how their body moved and how to work around mobility issues. They contrasted this with their time prior to para-powerlifting wherein they felt ‘powerless’ at times due to their disability. Broader research in fitness, and especially sports involving a barbell like bodybuilding/weightlifting and powerlifting, has stressed the body awareness developed in pursuit of these sports (Chare 2004). Para-powerlifters clearly exhibited a similar appreciation of this.

Male v. female accessibility

Although more recent research suggests (Harvey and Griffin 2021) a slow, but noticeable change, fitness cultures for the past century and a half have been a largely masculine space. This is not to say that female fitness did not exist, or was not encouraged, but rather that the general discourses have typically privileged white, heterosexual, male bodies above all else. This is to say nothing of the ableism exhibited within the field. Powerlifting is no exception, and, in fact, strength sports are often highly gendered spaces. Previous research on para-powerlifting has stressed the tension female athletes face about their femininity in a masculine space. Likewise, researchers have shown how success in para-powerlifting can reinforce one’s sense of masculinity (McPherson et al. 2016). The Irish context thus presented itself as unique in that all competing elite athletes at the time of writing identified as women. Speaking with Participant F, who is part of the much larger and better financed Great Britain team, this marked the Republic as unique within para-powerlifting where, in their opinion, recruiting men often proved far easier due to the broader societal praise given to strong men. Interestingly, one of the Irish coaches believed that the pressure to be strong dissuaded men from competing. According to Participant A, it was difficult to recruit men to para-powerlifting because the heavy weights lifted in competition demotivated men from competition. A former athlete themselves, Participant A stated.

I think it’s because of it. I’m being honest with ya I think it’s because of the standard the men are lifting. Look, you look at the world records that para powerlifting men are lifting. There’s no non-disabled lifter that would lift it.

it’s very hard to say to a 25- or 26-year-old man there’s look, you can make the Paralympics because when they look at what people are lifting, they’re going to know if they have any reasonable amount of intelligence that they’re not capable of lifting that.

Furthering the problem with ineffable records has been the presence of anabolic steroids within the sport and while Participant A was reluctant to single out nations, they did allude to its role in creating world records for other nations. For this reason, World Para-Powerlifting has redoubled its anti-doping efforts and, to that end, have disqualified several athletes in recent years for failed tests (International Paralympic Committee 2022). Participant A was not alone in noticing the difficulties facing male athletes. Participant D recalled that when they began para-powerlifting, twelve athletes were training, several of whom were men. While financial pressures were cited in some of the athlete’s decisions to withdraw from the sport, the weights lifted by men from other nations in competition discouraged others from continuing. Returning to Participant F, they stressed that para-powerlifters often define themselves by the weight that they can lift. Although somewhat reticent about the impact this had on athlete welfare in the long run, they made clear that athletes constantly compared themselves to others and, if they couldn’t reach the highest standards, many dropped out from the sport.

While the records set by athletes in women’s divisions broke world records, many within the para-powerlifting community felt that the sport was nonetheless still open to beginners. Put another way, no participant felt that the present records discouraged others from competing. In fact, because the records were lower than those found in the men’s divisions, this was seen as encouraging for existing and prospective athletes. This was seen to explain, in part, why male athletes exited the Irish program while women remained. Interesting one participant (D) cited the musculoskeletal differences between men and women as another potential reason why women were more likely to stay within the sport – ‘their body type has a big, big part to play in as, do you know, like, arm length and chest development.’ Paralympics Ireland (2021) annual report had, as part of its strategic goals, a desire to increase the number of medals won in international competitions. Tellingly Participant F’s experiences with the much better resourced Team GB stressed the allure para-powerlifting had for policymakers. In terms of investment, it had the potential for large medal returns which helped add prestige to the Paralympic program in Britain. While elite sport can reinforce damaging notions around disability, especially in a competitive setting (Berger 2008; Silva and Howe 2012), there is no denying that para-powerlifting’s smaller pool of athletes could help achieve Paralympic Ireland’s desire for more medals. This is especially so given the potential impact that basic provisions such as accessible gyms, paid coaches and dedicated training meetings could have.

Although this was not always the case, the Irish team is now currently trying to target more women to enter the sport. This is part of a broader push in Irish sport now to achieve greater parity between men’s and women’s sport. Thus, more time has been given to televising women’s sport, improving pathways for women into positions of power and increasing funding. One of the current coaches has been employed (as opposed to volunteering) specifically to increase the number of female athletes within para-powerlifting. The coach in question has already been praised by athletes and the coaches for helping to increase the standards and opportunities within the sport. Echoing the larger sporting context in Ireland (Stapleton and Loughren 2021), Participant F noted that para-powerlifting is uniquely placed to capitalize on the growing interest in women’s sport but only within a context which included men and women.

because of the two high profile athletes that we have been female, it’s drawing morefemales towards it. Again, there’ll be a big drive … And we’ll do some training camps … And I think, a residual effect of that some people might fall in love with the sport and take it up.

As a final point, it is worth stressing that at least one athlete expressly linked the sport to their femininity. Specifically, the athlete was interested in showing that they were capable of matching men when it came to strength and sport. This stemmed initially from their experiences in other wheelchair sports but, they felt that the traditionally hyper-masculine space of para-powerlifting was ripe for challenging.

I wanted to prove that women could compete and he (the coach) told me there was nowomen and I was like… I’m gonna change that though. So that’s … that’s how I got into the sport … that spurred me to do it because I just thought to myself, why isn’tanyone doing this? I can do it (Participant E).

While it proved impossible to interview any of those male athletes who participated in the sport and then dropped out, Participant A cited a desire among female athletes to prove themselves, and to disprove regressive ideas about what a woman can do, as a motivating factor which they believed kept them within the sport. This same desire was something Participant F hoped to cultivate in the creation of training camps and development pathways into the sport.

Discussion

Para-powerlifting, despite its global status, is still a relatively niche sport. This is especially true within the context of the Republic of Ireland. Looking at the pathways to para-powerlifting, the obstacles are multi-faceted. As an underfunded sport, athletes struggle to train together, often forcing individual coaches to travel great distances to prepare competitors for contests. Commercial gyms in the Republic often prove inadequate due to the lack of accessible equipment or, indeed, accessibility into the premise itself. At times athletes have been forced to train with equipment built for non-disabled lifters and hence, different to the kind of equipment used in elite competitions. Our findings here largely corroborate issues present in paralympic sports in general, especially the difficulties athletes often face in accessing the kind of equipment needed for their pursuit, particularly when nondisabled athletes in the same sport are prioritized (Howe 2007).

For a small cohort, such problems exist, but do not prevent meaningful engagement. When looking at the pathway individuals take into para-powerlifting it is telling that athletes, current and past, have tended to come from wheelchair basketball. As one Participant noted (D), wheelchair basketball has historically acted as a great catch-all for disability sport in the Republic. This explains why the athletes interviewed here came to the sport through basketball and why at least one coach has forged strong links within wheelchair basketball as a means of recruiting athletes. Although more work needs to be done on disability sport in Ireland, the commentary from athletes and coaches suggests that athletes need far more support accessing sports outside of basketball. The general underfunding in Irish disability sport suggests that this may be more aspirational than anything, but it is telling that the athletes themselves enjoyed wheelchair basketball but much preferred being given the option to trial powerlifting. This explains why Participant F was keen to create training camps for individuals interested in learning more about the sport.

While a great deal of work has been published on proprioception and disability sport, para-powerlifting has been neglected (Fletcher, Gallinger, and Prince 2021). Para-powerlifting, unlike many sports, demands the athletes position themselves in an uncomfortable posture, maintain complete control under heavy stress and focus on their muscle movement to an incredible degree. For this reason, the athletes stressed the ability para-powerlifting had to help them redefine their relationships with their body. Not only did the sport have obvious crossover benefits for their daily life (increased strength, decreased pain, strong health profiles etc.) it helped them redefine what they believed their body was capable of. On this point it is worth noting that para-powerlifting is one of few sports in which the sport is clearly written on the athletes’ bodies. The muscular bulk produced by training is shown in very specific areas on the body like the chest, arms, and shoulders. Para-powerlifting is a highly embodied practice, one noted by the athletes themselves.

Para-powerlifting has, traditionally, been a masculine space. The athletes interviewed here disrupted this narrative and, from the perspective of coaches, the ability to challenge stereotypes about what women could was something to be celebrated. As sporting bodies in the Republic of Ireland invest more money, and time, into women’s sport it is likely that it will become easier for athletes to take part in traditionally masculine sports. That at least one coach cited a desire to bring more women to para-powerlifting and was in fact hired for this purpose, suggests that para-powerlifting may become an ideal site for such expansion. That women are already successfully competing in the sport, and are being cited as role models, bodes well in this regard. It is less clear if men will take to the sport in future. Both coaches felt that men left the sport discouraged because of the records set elsewhere. This suggests that future work on disability sport needs to consider broader themes around masculinity, comparison, and failure.

The study of para-powerlifting in Ireland offers significant contributions to disability studies, particularly in enhancing our understanding of the complex interplay between disability, sport, and society from a more objective standpoint. Traditional narratives around strength and athleticism have predominantly focused on male athletes, often overshadowing female participants. This study uncovers the persistent gender binary in para-powerlifting, thereby illustrating the broader societal constructs of gender within sports. The analysis not only identifies the existing gender disparities but also serves as a call to action for further research aimed at understanding and dismantling these barriers, contributing to a more equitable sporting environment.

In terms of accessibility, the athletes’ experiences in the Republic of Ireland highlight significant shortcomings in the enforcement of accessibility laws and promises. Through a athlete narratives, this study documented the discrepancies between policy and practice, revealing the barriers that athletes with disabilities continue to face. This aspect of the research is critical in pinpointing the areas where legislative and societal efforts fall short, providing a clear roadmap for future advocacy and policymaking aimed at achieving true accessibility in sports. Finally, the exploration of the ‘super-crip’ narrative through athletes’ and coaches’ perspectives offers an insight into how athletes with disabilities perceive themselves and their achievements within the context of societal expectations. The study carefully distinguishes the varied ways athletes relate to the ‘super-crip’ narrative, highlighting the complex interplay between personal identity, societal labels, and the realities of access and opportunity in sports. This objective examination not only adds depth to our understanding of the ‘super-crip’ narrative but also challenges the dominant perspectives, encouraging a more nuanced dialogue around disability and achievement in sports. Looking to the future, more work needs to be done on female athletes in strength and physique sports in general. To date, many studies done on bodybuilding and powerlifting have focused on men. While this is illustrative of the fields themselves, there is much to be learned from female athletes in these domains. The goal for future research is to create comparative work across countries, to focus on individual gyms and to examine the experience of para-athletes across the life cycle.

For those working outside of academia, this study highlights first the need to re-evaluate the Republic’s commitment to accessibility for those with a disability. Accessibility means the ability to participate fully in activities. Here this means not just entering a gym but having the requisite accommodations to train there. Para-powerlifting also provides an insight into gendered pathways in sport, specifically recruiting women into pre-dominantly male spaces. While dedicated pathways into para-powerlifting are currently under construction the existing structure highlighted the value of mentors and role models. Finally, that athletes all commented on how para-powerlifting helped them to re-evaluate their relationships with their own bodies, especially regarding its capabilities speaks to a broader point about the need to re-evaluate how disability is understood and explained within the Republic.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.