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ABSTRACT
Due to decades of conflict and the emergence of the al-Shabaab-led violent extremism in the early 2000s, subsequent governments in Somalia have been unable to guarantee basic needs such as security and social services. As a result, communities have been forced to develop alternative means to protect themselves. This led to the establishment of the community security systems (CSSs) which coincided with the escalation of the conflict in the country since the 1990s. In south-central Somalia, human rights violations including forced recruitment of children into militant groups and forced illegal taxation has largely forced communities to rebel and devise protective mechanisms including leading offensives against al-Shabaab. Two groups, namely Ahlu Sunna Waljama’a (ASWJ) and Macawisley formed the CSSs that are the subject of this article. The paper draws from the empirical evidence from primary data and literature reviews to examine the role of CSSs in countering violent extremism. More specifically, the article examines the ASWJ and Macawisley CSSs in south-central Somalia. It responds to the following questions: What is the context that aided the emergence of CSSs in Somalia? What are its achievements and what are the challenges of the CSSs and implications for peace and security in the country?
Ethical approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee[add as appropriate] and with the1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.”?
Informed consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Notes
1 Clunan and Trinkunas, Ungoverned Spaces; Ramsbotham et al., Contemporary Conflict Resolution; Ramirez et al., ‘Community Partnerships Thwart Terrorism’, 151–69.
2 Ramirez et al.
3 Ramsbotham et al.
4 Ortiz, ‘Insurgent Strategies in the Post-Cold War’, 127–43.
5 Patriotic Union was a political party that was created in the course of Betancur administration’s peace building process that was meant to facilitate the transition of FARC into a political institution.
6 Ibid.
7 Mauricio, ‘Democratización política y contra reforma paramilitar en Colombia’, 332–57.
8 Valenzuela, ‘The End of the Armed Conflict in Colombia’, 205–17.
9 Ibid.
10 Juma and Sabala, Preventing the Spread of Violent Extremism in Africa’, 1–17.
11 Ibid.
12 Omenma et al., ‘Boko Haram Insurgency’, 43–67.
13 Williams, ‘Here Be Dragons’.
14 Clunan and Trinkunas.
15 Harris-Hogan, ‘Is Far-Right Violence Actually Increasing in Australia?’ 1–29.
16 Ibid.
17 Ramirez et al.
18 Ibid.
19 Oxford Analytica, ‘Somalia Stumbles into Another Regional Election Morass’.
20 Ibid.
21 Ibid.
22 Williams, ‘Building the Somali National Army’, 366–91.
23 Interview with a former fighter of ASWJ, Middle Shabelle, February 2023.
24 Williams, Building the Somali National Army (2020).
25 Ibrahim Shire, ‘Protection or Predation?’, 467–98.
26 Ibid.
27 Burke, ‘Al-Shabaab Plundering Starving Somali Villages of Cash and Children’.
28 Focus group discussion with Macawisley fighters in the Hiiraan region, February 2023.
29 Interview with first deputy commander of Macawisley, Hiiraan region, April 2023.
30 Interview with second deputy commander of Macawisley, Hiiraan region, May 2023.
31 Ibid.
32 Focus group discussion with Macawisley fighters in the Hiiraan region, February 2023.
33 Interview with third deputy commander, Macawisley, Middle Shabelle region, May 2023.
34 De Waal, ‘Somalia’s Disassembled State’, 561–85.
35 Ibid.
36 Ibid.
37 Ibid.
38 Ibid.
39 Momodu, ‘Strengthening Collaboration between Security Forces’.
40 Voice of America, Africa news. Fighting Kills At Least 13 in Central Somalia, November 20, 2010. https://www.voanews.com/a/fighting-kills-at-least-13-in-central-somalia-109698724/156873.html, access July, 24, 2023.
41 Interview with clan elder, Jowhar, May 2023 on kinship relations. The interviewee asserted that ‘one reason that caused people to join Macawisley is to assist (hiilo) a kin member who has been wronged by al-Shabaab. The person himself might not have been wronged, but because his kin was wronged by al-Shabaab, he joins him to take vengeance’.
42 Ibid.
43 Ibid.
44 Ramdeen, ‘Countering Terrorism and Violent Extremism in Africa’, 49–56.
45 Shinn, ‘Al Shabaab’s Foreign Threat to Somalia’.
46 Focus group discussion with Macawisley fighters in the Hiiraan region, February 2023.
47 Interview with one of the Macawisley fighters, Hiiraan region, February 2023.
48 Ibid.
49 Anonymous Somalia security stakeholder meeting, February 2023, Nairobi.
50 Interview with a former fighter of ASWJ, Middle Shabelle, February 2023.
51 General Mohamed Tahlil Bihi, the infantry commander of the SNA, announced to the media on Wednesday 22 September 2022 the opening of roads due to the liberation of the Hiiraan region from al-Shabaab.
52 Focus group discussion with Macawisley fighters in the Hiiraan region, February 2023.
53 Interview with FGS official, Mogadishu, April 2023.
54 Interview with Macawisley deputy commander, Beledwayne, May 2023.
55 Interview with government official, Mogadishu, May 2023.
56 Focus group discussion with Macawisley fighters in the Hiiraan region, February 2023.
57 Interview with Somali intelligence officer, February 2023.
58 Interview with community elder, Adapo, 20 March 2023.
59 Ibid.
60 ‘President Mohamud Appoints New Advisor in Fight Against Illegal Arms’, Hiiraan Online, 16 May 2023, www.hiiraan.com/news4/2023/May/191321/president_mohamud_appoints_new_advisor_in_fight_against_illegal_arms.aspx
61 De Waal.
62 Focus group discussion with Macawisley fighters in the Hiiraan region, February 2023.
63 Interview with Somali intelligence officer, February 2023.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Silas Malemo
Silas Malemo (PhD Candidate/University of Nairobi) has more than 10 years’ accumulated experience on matters of peace, security, development, conflict mitigation and stabilisation in Somalia. He is a PhD candidate in the Department for Diplomacy and International Relations, University of Nairobi. Currently, he is a Programme Manager for Denmark’s Somalia Country Programme at the Danish Embassy to Somalia. Before that, he served as Programme Officer at the British High Commission, Nairobi with the Department for International Development office for Somalia (DFID Somalia). DFID Somalia is now the Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office – Somalia (‘FCDO – Somalia’) focusing on stabilisation efforts in Somalia through economic and livelihood programmes.
Kizito Sabala
Dr Kizito Sabala has more than 18 years of accumulated experience on matters of peace and security in the Horn of Africa and Great Lakes region of Africa. Currently, Dr Sabala teaches at the Department of Diplomacy and International Studies (DDIS), University of Nairobi. Before that, he served as an adjunct lecturer at United States International University (USIU), Strathmore University, Technical University of Kenya (TUK), the National Defense University (NDU) and the Defense Intelligence Agency Academy (DIA). Recent assignments include Head of IGAD Liaison Offices in Juba, South Sudan and Nairobi, Kenya, and participating in the IGAD-led and the UN-led mediation in Somalia and South Sudan. Today, Dr Sabala consults for various regional and international organisations such as the UN, the African Union, the Eastern African Standby Force (EASF) and IGAD, among others. Dr Sabala has published articles and book chapters in his area of specialisation on international conflict management, security, international mediation and negotiation, and Pan-Africanism.