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ABSTRACT
The widespread production and use of plastics have resulted in accumulation of plastic debris in the environment, gradually breaking down into smaller particles over time. Nano-plastics (NPs) and microplastics (MPs), defined as particles smaller than 100 nanometers and 5 millimeters, respectively, raise concerns due to their ability to enter the human body through various pathways including ingestion, inhalation, and skin contact. Various investigators demonstrated that these particles may produce physical and chemical damage to human cells, tissues, and organs, disrupting cellular processes, triggering inflammation and oxidative stress, and impacting hormone and neurotransmitter balance. In addition, micro- and nano-plastics (MNPLs) may carry toxic chemicals and pathogens, exacerbating adverse effects on human health. The magnitude and nature of these effects are not yet fully understood, requiring further research for a comprehensive risk assessment. Nevertheless, evidence available suggests that accumulation of these particles in the environment and potential human uptake are causes for concern. Urgent measures to reduce plastic pollution and limit human exposure to MNPLs are necessary to safeguard human health and the environment. In this review, current knowledge regarding the influence of MNPLs on human health is summarized, including toxicity mechanisms, exposure pathways, and health outcomes across multiple organs. The critical need for additional research is also emphasized to comprehensively assess potential risks posed by degradation of MNPLs on human health and inform strategies for addressing this emerging environmental health challenge. Finally, new research directions are proposed including evaluation of gene regulation associated with MNPLs exposure.
Abbreviations
| AChE | = | acetylcholinesterase |
| AKT | = | protein kinase B |
| BDE-209 | = | decabrominated diphenyl ether |
| BHA | = | butylated hydroxyanisole |
| BPA | = | bisphenol A |
| BTB | = | blood testicular barrier |
| CAT | = | catalase |
| Cd | = | cádmium |
| CK-MB | = | creatine kinase-MB |
| CO | = | cardiac output |
| cTnI | = | cardiac troponin I |
| DPF | = | days post fertilization |
| DOHaD | = | developmental origins of health and disease |
| Eds | = | endocrine disruptors |
| eIF2α | = | eukaryotic initiation factor 2α |
| ER | = | endoplasmic reticulum |
| Erα | = | estrogen α receptors |
| ERK | = | extracellular signal-regulated kinase |
| GAPDH | = | glycolytic enzyme glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase |
| GH | = | growth hormone |
| GHR | = | growth hormone receptors |
| GIT | = | gastrointestinal tract |
| GR | = | glucocorticoid receptor |
| HÁ | = | humic acids |
| hiPSCs | = | human induced pluripotent stem cells |
| HO-1 | = | heme oxygenase |
| H2O2 | = | hydrogen peroxide |
| HOMA-IR | = | homeostasis model assessment-insulin resistance |
| HPF | = | hours post fertilization |
| HPI | = | Hypothalamic-pituitary-interrenal |
| HSP70 | = | heat shock protein 70 |
| IGF | = | Insulin-like growth fator |
| Il | = | interleukin |
| IRS | = | insulin receptor substrate |
| KE-AP1B | = | keap1b kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1b |
| Lcn2 | = | lipocalin-2 |
| LOX-1 | = | lectin-like oxidized low-density lipoprotein receptor-1 |
| MCLR | = | microcystin-LR |
| MCR | = | melanocortin receptor |
| MDA | = | malondialdehyde |
| MNPLs | = | micro and nanoplastics |
| MPs | = | microplastics |
| MSTN | = | myostatin |
| mTORC | = | mechanistic target of rapamycin complex |
| MT | = | metallothionein |
| NIS | = | sodium/iodide symporter |
| NF-Κb | = | nuclear factor kappa B |
| NRF2 | = | NF-E2-related protein 2 |
| NPs | = | nanoplastics |
| OECD | = | organization for economic cooperation and development |
| Pb | = | lead |
| PCBs | = | polychlorinated biphenyls |
| PE | = | polyethylene |
| PERK | = | endoplasmic reticulum kinase |
| PET | = | polyethylene terephthalate |
| PI3K | = | phosphoinositide 3-kinase |
| PMMA | = | polymethylmethacrylate |
| PP | = | polypropylene |
| PS | = | polystyrene |
| PSH | = | sulfhydryl protein |
| PS-MPs | = | polystyrene microplastic |
| PS-NPs | = | polystyrene nanoplastic |
| ROS | = | reactive oxygen species |
| SOD | = | superoxide dismutase |
| T-AOC | = | total antioxidant capacity |
| THs | = | thyroid hormones |
| T3 | = | triiodothyronine |
| T4 | = | thyroxine |
| TG | = | thyroglobulin |
| TPO | = | thyroperoxidase |
| TR | = | thyroid receptors |
| TSHβ | = | Thyroid Stimulating Hormone β |
| TSHR | = | thyroid stimulating hormone receptor |
| TSP | = | total suspended particles |
| TTR | = | transthyretin |
| ZnO | = | zinc oxide. |
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Credit authorship contribution statement
Bernardo Lannes Monteiro Fontes, Lorena Cristina de Souza e Souza: Data collection, manuscript writing, design and creation of figures; Ana Paula Santos da Silva de Oliveira: manuscript writing and review; Rodrigo Nunes da Fonseca, Marinaldo Pacifico Cavalcanti Neto: Study design, Data collection, manuscript writing, review; Cintia Rodrigues Pinheiro: Study design, Data collection, manuscript writing, review and supervision.