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ABSTRACT
This article investigates socioeconomic determinants correlated with PostTraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) symptoms during the May 2021 Hamas-Israel conflict, primarily the effects of rocket strikes on Israeli civilians. Its findings reveal a stark disparity in PTSD risks across different socioeconomic groups with individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds exhibiting a notably higher propensity for PTSD symptoms than people with higher education and stable family backgrounds. The article’s implications extend far beyond the immediate context of the Israel-Hamas conflict. By highlighting the socioeconomic dimensions of PTSD, it advocates for more comprehensive, context-sensitive mental health strategies. Such strategies are crucial for addressing the complex array of factors influencing mental health in conflict zones, ultimately paving the way for more resilient and supportive communities.
Disclosure statement
The author declares that the article is his original work, has not been published or submitted elsewhere, and that all sources used in the preparation of this article have been properly cited and referenced. Furthermore, no financial support was received for the writing of this article, and there is no direct or indirect financial involvement with any of the organisations or individuals mentioned. Additionally, no conflicts of interest exist with regard to the authorship or publication of this academic article. Before conducting any research described in this article, the author obtained approval from the relevant institutional ethics committee and ensured that the research was conducted ethically by relevant ethical guidelines. Research data is available on OSF.io, a platform for storing, sharing, and managing research data.
Notes
1. Ehlers and Clark, “A Cognitive Model.”
2. World Health Organization, The World Health Report 2001.
3. Amir et al., “Type of Trauma”; Benjet, “The Epidemiology”; Contractor et al., “PTSD”s Factor Structure”; Ford et al., “Disorders”; and Smith et al., “Is Worst-Event Trauma Type Related to PTSD Symptom Presentation and Associated Features?”
4. MacDermid and Shelley, “Family Risk”; and Murthy and Lakshminarayana, “Mental Health.”
5. Blevins et al., “The Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist”; and Paryente, “Parenting Experiences.”
6. Bayer, “Challenges”; Bayer et al., “Time and Risk Preferences”; Bayer and Shtudiner, “Sirens of Stress”; and Solomon and Bayer, “Is all Mental Harm Equal?”
7. Amir et al., “Type of Trauma”; Benjet, “The Epidemiology”; Ford et al., “Disorders”; and Smith et al., “Is Worst-Event Trauma Type Related to PTSD Symptom Presentation and Associated Features?”
8. Havenaar et al., “Long-Term Mental Health Effects”; and Schlenger et al., “Psychological Reactions.”
9. Brewin et al., “Meta-Analysis”; and DiGrande et al., “Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms.”
10. Ibid.; DiGrande et al., “Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms”; Iversen et al., “Risk Factors”; Johnson et al., “Psychiatric Disorders”; and Schnurr et al., “Risk Factors.”
11. Cheng, “Risk Factors”; and DiGrande et al., “Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms.”
12. Brewin et al., “Meta-Analysis”; and Kongshøj and Berntsen, “Is Young Age a Risk Factor?”
13. Li et al., “Posttraumatic Stress Disorder.”
14. Burri and Maercker, “Differences in Prevalence Rates.”
15. The Meir Amit Intelligence and Terrorism Information Center, Accessed April 6, 2022. https://Www.Terrorism-Info.Org.Il/.
16. This article is part of a wider study on the effects of rocket attacks on Israeli population centres during specific military operations, conducted by Yaakov Bayer and Solon Solomon from Brunel University London School of Law.
17. The questionnaire is one of the diagnostic tools for people with PTSD. A complete diagnosis of PTSD includes a clinical diagnosis that was not included in the study. Therefore, this is not a clinical diagnosis but a general and partial evaluation and assessment according to the validated questionnaire.
18. Blevins et al., “The Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist.”
19. Bovin et al., “Psychometric Properties”; and Wortmann et al., “Psychometric Analysis.”
20. Kongshøj and Berntsen, “Is Young Age a Risk Factor?”
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Yaakov M. Bayer
Yaakov M. Bayer is a Senior Lecturer at the Department of Health Systems Management, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, and the Beer-Sheva Mental Health Center, Israel. The author is grateful to the study’s participants, a significant number of whom hail from the areas surrounding the Gaza Strip, which have endured decades of sustained terrorist attacks. These individuals have endured devastating acts of merciless and cruel violence against their family members and friends within their communities by terrorists from the Hamas organization, particularly on October 7, 2023. You are in my thoughts, and my most fervent prayers and deepest sympathies are unreservedly with you. I extend my heartfelt wishes for a full and speedy recovery to those who have been injured. I fervently hope for the immediate and safe return of those who are being held hostage. Additionally, I pray for those who have been tragically murdered.