Covering a health crisis as a military crisis? The Israeli media coverage of the first COVID-19 wave crisis

ABSTRACT

This article analyzes the media coverage of the first wave of the COVID-19 crisis. The analysis of 213 items from leading TV channels and newspapers revealed four main themes characterising the: coverage of the establishment’s preparations, coverage of morbidity, criticism of the establishment, and information provision. By and large, the media acted as a ‘mobilized press’, encouraging the public to follow guidelines, but criticism of certain sectors of the public and individuals was almost absent. The article demonstrates that the phenomenon of ‘rallying around the flag’ is common in both security and health crises.

KEYWORDS:

• Israel
• health
• COVID-19 virus
• crisis
• media
• press
• TV
• COVID-19

Extensive research literature suggests that during emergencies, the media in Israel, as well as other countries, tends to become mobilised. Typically, the media refrains from criticising the government’s handling of the crisis and journalists tend to adopt a more forgiving position towards the authorities’ actions. Scholars have referred to this phenomenon as patriotic or mobilised journalism. This phenomenon has been observed inter alia in the British media during WWII, the US media after 9/11, and in the Israeli media during every war and crisis.¹

The COVID-19 pandemic rapidly spread and turned into a persistent crisis. Israel’s endemic security reality has made it a convenient and frequently utilised testing ground for media coverage during times of war, terrorist attacks, and emergency situations.² The COVID-19 crisis has now been added to this list of events, presenting an ongoing health crisis with significant impacts on economic, social, political, and other areas.

This article focuses on the media coverage of the initial wave of COVID-19 morbidity in Israel. It seeks to contribute to the theoretical literature by exploring whether, in the era of online and multi-channel communication, and in a crisis that primarily concerns health rather than security or military aspects, the media still exhibits a ‘rally around the flag’ phenomenon, and if so, in what ways and to what extent.³

Media coverage of crises

The media’s role in times of crisis is particularly intricate. As the ‘messenger of disaster’, the media is frequently blamed for extreme events. In these complex situations, the media plays an even more critical role in maintaining freedom of expression and providing coverage of events as they unfold.⁴

Journalists play a critical role in interpreting and explaining events to the public, and, as such, can bolster or undermine citizens’ resilience in coping with a crisis. During these times, the primary professional dilemma for journalists is whether to maintain their role as providers of reliable information to the public without compromising on the need to safeguard its right to know, or to prioritise social responsibility.⁵

The security situation in Israel creates a sense of insecurity in society that mobilises journalists. During times of war, the significant ideological divides in Israeli society are often minimised, and public discourse tends to revolve around the shared struggle against a common enemy. This sense of national unity extends to members of the media, who feel a responsibility to identify with the task of defending the country. However, this support for social solidarity is typically temporary, and journalists eventually return to their role of covering the government and its institutions in a professional, critical, and balanced manner.⁶

Research suggests that the media in democratic societies operates differently in ordinary times compared to times of crisis. During a crisis, the media often aligns with the government for patriotic reasons, a phenomenon known as ‘rallying around the flag’. The sense of threat and uncertainty during a crisis strengthens the media’s role in society, including meeting cognitive needs for information and interpretation of events, mobilising solidarity, responding to emotional needs, and reinforcing social unity. The rallying around the flag represents the position of the media and the public, which are often more forgiving towards political leaders during times of crisis.⁷

Lavie-Dinor and Karniel’s research investigated how the press covers national crises originating in the health and medicine field, using the case study of Prime Minister Ariel Sharon’s sudden incapacitation due to illness. The study found that the lack of criticality during a medical-political crisis is similar to the media approach during times of war and security crises. In this case, the press focused on transmitting information received from the government, and at the beginning of the medical crisis attending Sharon’s incapacitation did not critically examine its potential impact on the political situation in Israel.⁸ Despite the obligation to provide reliable information, situations may arise where journalists who do not typically cover health-related topics report on them, despite their unfamiliarity with the subject matter.⁹ This may result in an inaccurate portrayal of the situation.¹⁰

There is a difficulty in journalistic coverage of health issues, which mainly stems from the fundamental difference between the media and medicine worlds. Journalistic reporting depends on pressures and competitiveness, and the extent of its commitment to scientific accuracy is not always at the top of the priority scale.¹¹ Despite the media’s role in meeting the public’s right to know, on complex and professional issues such as health journalists cannot provide medical interpretation without the help of professionals. Therefore, their reports on these issues are usually general. Media researchers claim that in health coverage, journalists become conduits that transmit partial and perhaps even trending reports.¹²

The case study: the COVID-19 crisis in Israel

Like many other countries, the Israeli government has implemented a series of restrictions aimed at combating the spread of COVID-19. Emergency regulations were introduced, which initially led to the cancellation of public events related to leisure and culture, as well as the closure of universities, schools, and kindergartens. Restrictions were also placed on gatherings, limiting them to no more than ten people in the same space. Later, the public sector was put into emergency mode and private sector activity was reduced by 70%. Finally, leaving home was prohibited except for essential reasons. By September 2021, the number of confirmed cases in Israel had surpassed one million.

Israel has faced numerous crisis situations in various fields since its establishment. The legal basis for the Ministry of Health’s powers of isolation and quarantine during the COVID-19 crisis can be traced back to regulations from the mandate era (1920–48). However, due to the pandemic’s magnitude and the state of emergency that was declared, unprecedented emergency measures were taken that had a profound impact on the daily lives of Israelis and the country’s economy. The widespread fear and high number of deaths caused by the virus led to extensive media coverage of the crisis in all its aspects.

In March 2020, extensive coverage began in all media networks on the actions taken by the government to combat the newly arrived pandemic. These actions included the development of economic assistance programmes, the preparation of the health system to treat the population, assistance of the elderly population, the closure of the formal education system and the activation of distance learning, breaking the chain of infection, and vaccination of the population.¹³

However, there is a notable difference between the coverage of the COVID-19 pandemic and previous epidemics. This stems from the unknown and dangerous character of the pandemic, which affected the entire world and numerous media outlets simultaneously. As was the case with previous epidemic outbreaks, during the early stage of the COVID-19 outbreak (the first wave), three challenges had to be encountered: identifying the crisis, understanding it, and making decisions for action.¹⁴ Journalists played a role in facilitating the management of the crisis by cooperating with the authorities, as well as serving as explainers to the public.¹⁵

Studies in other countries found that reports on the pandemic were fear inducing and had a negative impact on citizens, to the extent that some of them avoided watching the news altogether.¹⁶ Emotions played a significant role in the way journalists described the COVID-19 crisis. However, at times the alarming descriptions had unintended consequences and undermined their professional duty of providing accurate and timely information to the public during a crisis.¹⁷

This article analyzes the coverage of the COVID-19 crisis by the Israeli media during the first wave, focusing on the health and medical aspects, in an attempt to determine whether the media coverage of the health crisis exhibited similarities to that of a security crisis.

Method

To study the media coverage of the COVID-19 crisis during its first wave in Israel, we used textual content analysis. The research population comprised thousands of articles from leading media platforms, including written media (print and internet) and broadcast media (TV), covering the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic and the fight against it. These articles were collected by ‘Ifat’, a company that monitors the Israeli media. The media outlets surveyed include Israel Hayom, Haaretz, and Yediot Ahronot for the printed press; ynet, a leading digital news site; and the news releases of TV channels Kan 11, Keshet 12, and Reshet 13 for broadcast media. The selection of these means of communication was based on their status as central media outlets in Israel, each in its respective field. Additionally, the combination of diverse media outlets helps create a heterogeneous sample that accurately represents all the articles on the COVID-19 pandemic that appeared in the Israeli media.

After an initial review of the article database, they were filtered to include the most relevant articles for the research purposes. The selection was made on the basis of the following criteria:

• The centrality of the articles. To ensure the study’s accuracy, only articles that received prominent coverage and appeared in the headlines were selected. In the case of the printed press, only articles that appeared on the paper’s front page were included. Similarly, the ‘principle of centrality’ was applied to the broadcast media, with all sampled articles being broadcast between 19:55 and 20:15, a time when the main and most urgent articles are typically aired. Articles that were published in the digital media featured on the main page or at the top of the site.

• Date of articles’ publication. As noted earlier, the initial filtering of articles focused on those published during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in Israel. The pandemic’s outbreak was accompanied by a great deal of uncertainty and confusion regarding how to handle the situation, making this period particularly dramatic from a media perspective. Thus, we included articles published on 15–21 March 2020. This timeframe coincides with the implementation of the first lockdown in Israel, which marked the peak of the first wave. During this period, increasingly strict measures were put in place, ultimately leading to a complete lockdown.

• Coverage of the crisis in Israel. While the media provided extensive coverage of the COVID-19 pandemic worldwide, the study focused specifically on articles covering the situation in Israel. Therefore, only articles relating to the impact of the pandemic within Israel were included in the sample.

Once the articles were filtered according to the stated criteria, all relevant articles were compiled to create a representative sample comprising hundreds of articles. These articles were subjected to a thorough analysis in order to identify recurring themes that were present in a significant portion of the articles. During the initial mapping process, seven themes emerged from the articles. However, it was ultimately decided to focus the current study on the four most frequently occurring themes.

The coding scheme

To analyse the texts we utilised coding process where we searched for categories that represented the topics discussed in the articles. The next step involved mapping analysis, where we examined the connections between the categories. The coding system used scores of 1 and 0 to identify the selected themes from the articles. After creating the coding table, a joint and individual review was conducted by the coders until full agreement was reached.

After analysing the data and coding 310 instances from 213 articles, four main themes emerged:

• Organizational Preparedness – found in 127 articles

• Morbidity – found in 80 articles

• Criticism of the Establishment – found in 60 articles

• Advocacy and Information Provision – found in 43 articles.

Three marginal themes were excluded from the study, namely: criticism of citizens, criticism of sectors, and the voices of citizens.

Findings

Table 1 includes the themes in the analysis below in order of frequency.

Table 1. Distribution of themes by media.

	Preparation of the establishment	Morbidity	Criticism of the establishment	Advocacy and providing information	Total
Internet	69	41	30	29	169
Printed Press	26	15	15	5	61
TV	32	24	15	9	80
Total	127, 59.6% of all sampled articles	80, 37.5% of all sampled articles	60, 28.1% of all sampled articles	43, 20.1% of all sampled articles	310 codings out of 213 articles

Theme 1: preparation of the respective establishments

The predominant theme that emerged was the preparation of establishments to handle the COVID-19 crisis, comprising 127 articles (making up 59.6% of all analysed articles). In anticipation of an unprecedented and unfamiliar emergency situation, the media provided in-depth coverage of the measures taken by the government, especially the Ministry of Health, as well as health funds and other medical entities to tackle the crisis from a medical perspective.

The media extensively reported on the various modifications and adaptations made by these establishments, emphasising their efforts to combat the spread of the pandemic and minimise its impact on the general population. As a result, the media supported the establishment’s response to the COVID-19 outbreak, portraying it as an urgent crisis that demanded immediate attention. The establishment’s preparation efforts were covered across three key areas: regulatory measures, public guidelines and restrictions, and operational readiness, all aimed at effectively tackling the virus:

• Regulation: Some of the articles focused on the government’s regulatory efforts to curb the morbidity and infection rate of COVID-19. For instance, the article ‘Government approves electronic monitoring mechanism to curb COVID-19 spread’ discussed the government’s decision to implement electronic monitoring of patients and individuals in isolation to ensure compliance and prevent transmission. Another article discussed the government’s implementation of cellphone tracking regulations, highlighting their potential to identify infected patients and disrupt chains of infection:

  As per the plan, the Shin Bet will track confirmed COVID-19 cases and their movements until they enter isolation or hospitalisation. The technology will enable the Shin Bet to identify all individuals who were near the infected person during their travels, thereby allowing for direct notification to their mobile devices regarding potential exposure to the virus. The individuals will be advised to undergo testing and isolate themselves accordingly.

• Public guidelines and restrictions: Apart from the legislative changes, the establishment leaders also decided to impose restrictions on the general public to curb the spread of the virus. The primary measure taken was the implementation of the first-ever quarantine in Israel. This decision was made with the aim of reducing morbidity. Thus, for example one article covered the closure of entertainment venues and preschools, which was ordered by the government. Another article, published two days later, addressed the newly imposed restrictions on public transportation in an effort to minimise citizen movement: ‘In an attempt to curb the spread of COVID-19, public transportation services in Israel are operating on a reduced schedule’.

As a result of these restrictions, it was decided to reduce train traffic by 50%. The government started implementing restrictions even on the economy by significantly reducing private sector activities and transitioning the public sector to an emergency mode of operation. One article highlighted the Ministry of Health’s instructions urging people to refrain from leaving their homes for public places and instead stay with their immediate family:

The Ministry of Health released new guidelines today (Tuesday), urging individuals to stay at home unless necessary. The guidelines specifically prohibit visits to parks, malls, and beaches. Public spaces may only be accessed for essential purposes or with immediate family members and pets, as stated in the detailed guidelines.

In addition, the media reported on the government’s decision to restrict the number of individuals permitted in enclosed and open spaces. For instance, one article stated that ‘the government authorized new regulations limiting the number of employees in the workplace’. The media also covered measures taken to ensure compliance with these restrictions, such as the installation of barriers on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem to reduce the number of visitors and promote adherence to safety guidelines:

Today (Friday), the police set up roadblocks in Jerusalem’s Old City and limited the number of Muslim worshipers permitted to attend the midday prayers on the Temple Mount. Only a few hundred individuals were granted entry.

• The operational preparation. Apart from the limitations imposed on the public and changes in legislation, a significant portion of the articles focused on the operational aspects of the response to the pandemic. For instance, the article ‘Increasing the Scope of COVID-19 Testing: Additional Labs and Round-the-Clock Work’ provides details about expanding the number of laboratories and extending the working hours of teams to enhance the testing capacity for COVID-19. The article cites Dr. Ram Dolman, Director of the Laboratory Department at Sheba, who said:

Over the past two weeks, Israel recognised the importance of widespread testing in reducing mortality rates, and we are working to increase our testing capabilities accordingly. That is why we were able to set up another laboratory in just four days, which will operate at twice the capacity of the Ministry of Health’s original lab.

The government went as far as creating dedicated departments to care for COVID-19 patients, and the media reported on these efforts. For instance, an article highlighted the government’s preparations to handle a surge in COVID-19 cases, including the conversion of a hospital into a facility exclusively for treating COVID-19 patients:

Hasharon Hospital in Petah Tikva is undergoing rapid transformation into a specialised facility for the treatment of COVID-19 patients. The complex will consist of five wards, with a total of 200 hospital beds, 40 ventilators, and a team of 1000 medical professionals.

Another article documented the conversion of the parking lot at Sheba Hospital into an intensive care complex dedicated to COVID-19 patients. Additionally, the Ministry of Health altered the hospitalisation guidelines for non-COVID-19 patients and transferred surgeries to private hospitals, with the goal of allocating enough resources and equipment to treat COVID-19 patients:

After crossing the 500-patient mark, the Ministry of Health announced a plan to allow for the massive admission of thousands of patients. This plan includes closing internal wards, transferring surgeries to private hospitals, and converting maternity suites in hospitals into inpatient wards.

The growing number of applicators was evident to the authorities, which recognised the significance of their role in facilitating COVID-19 testing. The media also highlighted this development and stressed its importance in expanding the scope of testing. One article reads:

Today, Defence Minister Naftali Bennett reached an agreement with the National Security Council (NSC) regarding the procurement of essential medical equipment and its delivery to Israel. The Ministry of Health will determine the specific needs, while the Ministry of Defence will be responsible for the procurement process and international transportation. This will involve expedited procedures for purchasing medical equipment both within Israel and from around the world, with the aim of delivering it to the State of Israel as quickly as possible.

During the state of emergency caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, the IDF played a significant role in preparing for and responding to the crisis. Various articles highlighted the IDF’s efforts, such as ‘IDF battalions trained for disinfection and quarantine enforcement’, which described the training provided to soldiers for the purpose of maintaining hygiene and enforcing directives in military bases and public spaces. Other articles, like ‘Bennett approves recruitment of 2,000 reserve soldiers for Home Front Command’, discussed decisions to increase manpower to address the pandemic. Additionally, there were efforts to procure necessary equipment to deal with the pandemic in the Arab sector.

Theme 2: morbidity

The second most common theme found in the sampled articles was morbidity, comprising 37.5% of the total. These articles covered patients and their medical conditions, as well as preparations made to contain the spread of the disease. For example, ‘Institution purchases 100,000 COVID-19 tests: Senior health official confirms availability’ discusses efforts to procure testing supplies, while other articles reported on daily patient numbers such as ‘175 new COVID-19 cases confirmed since midnight, with an increase in patients in serious condition on special breathing equipment’.

In addition, various hypotheses were proposed regarding the potential increase in morbidity rates and the potential deterioration of patients’ conditions in the near future. Examples of such hypotheses can be seen in articles such as ‘39 new COVID-19 cases confirmed today’; ‘Ministry of Health predicts increase of at least 100 cases tomorrow’, and ‘Health system warns: Without a change in policy, hundreds of patients could be in serious condition within a month’.

The analysis of the 80 articles revealed that two sub-themes frequently repeated in the database.

• Dramatic framing. Most of the reports focused on the high number of individuals who were infected and employed sensational language to convey the severity of the situation: ‘The number of individuals diagnosed with COVID-19 has increased to 7,428, of whom 96 currently require respiratory support’.

Upon analysing the articles, it became apparent that a common trend was the frequent use of words and phrases that conveyed a constant and alarming escalation of the COVID-19 situation. Such language can create a sense of hopelessness and pessimism among readers. Additionally, phrases such as ‘prepare for the worst’ can further exacerbate this feeling. The persistent emphasis on the rising number of cases was a recurring feature in many of the articles. It appears that most articles focused solely on the situation of severely ill COVID-19 patients, despite the existence of more positive and encouraging data. For instance, an article that presented tables with an overview of hospitalised patients showed that the position of 284 individuals who tested positive for the virus was mild. However, the text of the article and headlines only mentioned severe and moderate cases.

• Pessimistic forecast. Despite the low number of seriously ill patients, the reports were accompanied by negative and foreboding speculations about the future. One such example was an article broadcast on Channel 12, which presented a horror scenario based on the remarks of the head of the geriatrics division at the Ministry of Health: ‘Preparing for a scenario where thousands require breathing assistance’.

At times, forecasts were mentioned as an introduction to explain the preparations made by hospitals and medical teams to accommodate an expected surge in patients. An example of this can be seen in an article that was aired on Keshet 12, which discussed the next stage of the pandemic: ‘Sheba Medical Center established a dedicated field hospital for treating COVID-19 patients, in anticipation of the virus’s arrival’. The ‘Kan 11’ channel also aired a similar report about the spread of COVID-19, which discussed the expansion of testing and the decision to require mandatory isolation for all those returning from abroad, with the assessment that this was a drastic measure.

Negative forecasts were at times presented in conjunction with updates on the Shin Bet’s tracking measures, which were presented as a potential solution to the rising number of infections. However, some government officials believed that using the Shin Bet for tracking purposes could be illegal, as these units were designed for hostile and criminal activity, not civilian use. There were calls to ‘halt the use of Shin Bet units and not to train them in legislation’.

In addition to reporting on the number of confirmed infections, there were also claims that the actual number of patients was much higher. One example of this can be seen in the Ministry of Health’s response to the situation: ‘We are certain that there are thousands of unreported cases. The disease is highly contagious, and we are on the brink of losing control’. There were very few voices offering a counterbalance to the alarming predictions. During an interview with the media, ‘COVID-19 Tsar’ Professor Gabi Barbash made a grim forecast about the spread of the pandemic and its potential consequences. In response, Professor Doron Lantz challenged Barbash, saying ‘This is another doomsday forecast. How did you arrive at the figure of 2,000 patients on respiratory support?’

Theme 3: criticism of the establishment

The third most common theme was criticism of the establishment, which was the focus of 60 articles (or 28.1% of all sampled articles). While the media extensively covered the government’s efforts to prepare for the COVID-19 outbreak, it also highlighted instances of failures and omissions by the authorities, resulting in criticism. Within this theme, three sub-themes emerged that characterised the media’s critique of the government.

• Criticism of conduct inefficiency/malfunction: Criticism mainly focused on the authorities’ organisational and operational failures in managing the crisis. This ranged from a lack of necessary equipment to incorrect decision-making and a lack of coordination between different agencies, resulting in various failures. One article highlighted deficiencies in the flow of samples to laboratories at the beginning of the pandemic. According to the State Comptroller’s report, there were issues with the scope of testing during those early days and the blame was placed on the Ministry of Health for not adequately monitoring the pandemic’s results and not offering practical solutions. The audit found deficiencies in coordination between various agencies and a lack of automatic mechanisms to monitor the transfer of information from the sampling phase to the testing phase. This effectively limited the number of tests that could be conducted each day.

Another article highlighted a significant issue that surfaced following a procurement campaign for COVID-19 tests conducted by the Mossad. It depicted the incident as a failure of the tests and disclosed that: ‘The Mossad was tasked with acquiring 100,000 test kits but failed to procure markers that are essential for conducting mass tests’.

Criticism was also directed at the lengthy process of carrying out and verifying tests, which allowed for more people to become infected during this time. Titled ‘Severe shortage of protective equipment and standards: the health system tries to fill gaps of years’, the article intensified criticism of the health system’s preparedness for the pandemic by highlighting its shortcomings and deficiencies in dealing with the disease. For instance, under the subtitle ‘Protective equipment for doctors’, it highlights a report of a significant shortage of masks.

• Inter-agency disagreements: Some of the criticisms featured statements from individuals within the establishment itself. One article highlighted the lack of consensus among various entities and focused on Defence Minister Bennett’s dissatisfaction with the scale of COVID-19 testing at that time:

While the debate regarding the extent of testing persists in the background … merely 1,200 tests were conducted today … Bennett believes that this number is insufficient, and the daily testing capacity must increase dramatically to 15,000 tests.

As medical personnel began contracting COVID-19, the media started to cover the events and gave extensive coverage to physicians who criticised the establishment’s handling of the situation, as demonstrated by the following article:

The Chairman of the Medical Association, Prof. Zion Hagai, expressed concern that the current situation cannot persist and immediate measures must be taken to prevent future infections. He called upon the health system to urgently reorganise hospital work practices and adopt an approach of working in small groups to reduce exposure and ensure adequate protection for all medical teams across all departments.

Another article warned of overcrowding on public transportation, which would increase the risk of contracting COVID-19 and adversely affect vulnerable populations and the elderly who depended on these bus routes.

• Commentaries: Numerous media outlets featured commentaries and opinion columns that were highly critical of the government’s handling of the crisis. Commentary pieces were particularly pointed, with columnists and commentators expressing their opinions, many of which were highly critical of the government’s response to the pandemic. One of the commentaries, titled ‘Delay the End’, criticised the failure of the testing system:

In addition to these problems, there was a significant shortage of COVID-19 testing kits and an acute shortage of protective equipment for medical personnel. The Israeli system had nearly two months to prepare for these issues, but it appears that the response was inadequate … Had the State Comptroller’s office been active, there would be ample opportunity to expect a thorough examination of the situation once the dust settles. Unfortunately, this office has been weakened in recent years under Netanyahu’s leadership.

Another commentary, titled ‘A Tragedy for Generations’, concluded that the events of recent days signalled a complete loss of control. The article was particularly scathing of Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu for allegedly failing to demonstrate strong leadership and to keep the Israeli people at home until the danger of infection passed. Instead, the article argued that Netanyahu chose the easier path.

Another criticism of the Israeli establishment was the lack of a comprehensive plan to deal with the COVID-19 pandemic. Unlike other governments, Israel was accused of not having a clear long-term vision, resulting in a disorganised approach to handling the crisis.

Theme 4: advocacy and providing information

The fourth common theme addressed the dissemination of information and advocacy, and encompassed 43 articles (or 20.1% of all sampled articles). In light of the necessary preparations required to manage the pandemic and the uncertainties surrounding COVID-19 and its effects, journalists endeavoured to provide information to the public and answer its questions. Most of the time, details were provided based on information received from the relevant parties, including the government, the Ministry of Health, and medical organisations. Journalists also conducted research to gather information on the situation, and expert service members, especially doctors, were often interviewed to answer questions that worried the public.

The articles can be divided into three main recurring sub-themes:

• Conducting the quarantine and following the instructions. During the period under discussion, the first guidelines were put into effect at the beginning of the first closure. As a result, many articles focused on answering questions about what was allowed and what was not, interpreting the instructions, detailing unusual cases, and so on. For instance, an article titled ‘Up to 10 people: What is open and what will be closed? Questions and answers’ provided information on the new guidelines of the first closure, highlighting their impact on the daily lives of citizens, and explaining which frameworks and services would continue to operate and in what format.

Most articles provided specific instructions to the public so as to eliminate any questions or doubts. For instance:

Under the new regulations, individuals are not permitted to leave their place of residence except for the following actions or purposes: commuting to and from work, purchasing food, medicine, and other essential products, and receiving essential services … Private tutors are not allowed, and door-to-door food deliveries should be left outside and picked up after the messenger has left. The Seder night should only be celebrated with immediate family members, and walking a dog is permitted.

Several articles urged the public to adhere to the guidelines set forth by the Ministry of Health, emphasising their significance and impact on effectively managing the pandemic. For example:

We are currently facing a great deal of uncertainty, with regard to both our present circumstances and our future. However, what is certain is that each and every one of us has the ability to contribute to the collective effort in combating the spread of the disease through our daily actions and support of our community, especially those who are most vulnerable. This has always been a strength of our people, and it is being put to the test at this time.

A notable instance of this was an article broadcasted on Keshet 12, featuring Bennett discussing the importance of following guidelines, patient follow-up, and the number of COVID-19 tests conducted. Another article mentioned that following the latest Ministry of Health guidelines, Rabbis Eliezer Melamed and David Stav decided to hold private prayers and intended to disperse their respective communities until the pandemic subsided.

During an article broadcast on Kan 11, a discussion took place regarding transportation, workplaces, and medical treatments. While it was acknowledged that the instructions might be challenging for citizens to follow, people were also urged ‘to minimize their outings and refrain from leaving their homes unless absolutely necessary, such as for work purposes if working from home is not possible’. This sentiment was reflected in an article titled ‘Stay at Home, Do Not Entertain Friends: A Guide to the New Guidelines’, which provided information about the guidelines and urged the public to adhere to them as closely as possible.

Certain articles made information more accessible to children by adapting the content and speaker to a younger target audience. For instance, in the article ‘Miki teaches children how to protect themselves from COVID-19’, children’s star Miki participated in the Ynet studio and delivered a clear and age-appropriate explanation of what COVID-19 was and how to stay protected from it. She used a calm tone and tailored her message to resonate with children, even providing ‘tips’ for parents on how to discuss the issue with their kids.

• Dealing with COVID-19 patients and locating them. Since the worldwide outbreak of the pandemic, media outlets reported on the difficult and humane conditions in which COVID-19 patients were treated during the early stages of the disease. For instance, the article titled ‘Respiratory Therapy and Anesthesia: How Patients are Treated in Critical and Difficult Situations’ provided expert insights into the methods of treatment and their effectiveness. The article shed light on the challenging circumstances that medical professionals faced when treating COVID-19 patients and how they overcame them to provide the best care possible.

As the number of patients increased, more articles began to emerge that explained the testing procedures, hospitalisation of patients, treatment of the disease, and management of COVID-19 hotels. For instance:

A dedicated headquarter was established to coordinate between the medical services and the medical follow-up teams at the hotel. Patients will only be admitted with a written referral from the health funds, and entry without prior coordination will not be permitted … This measure seeks to protect the public from potential exposure to the virus … Additionally, the Ministry of Health authorised the health funds to conduct COVID-19 tests for individuals who were not in isolation.

Following the banning of anti-inflammatory drugs to reduce fever by the health system in France, one article stated that the Ministry of Health did not issue any recommendation to avoid drugs containing Ibuprofen. Similar articles were published with the intention of clarifying the public’s rights, providing a general understanding of treatment methods, and easing the feelings of uncertainty and pressure that were prevalent at the time.

• Information and instructions regarding the new virus. The media played a key role in disseminating information obtained from preliminary medical studies on the COVID-19 virus. For instance, an article titled ‘Contrary to Previous Assumptions: Children are Infected with COVID-19 No Less Than Adults’ provided information on a new study that claimed that children could easily contract the virus and be infected, even if they were asymptomatic. One article presented research findings about the underlying medical conditions that exacerbated the condition of COVID-19 patients, while another highlighted research attempts to understand why men were more susceptible to dying from COVID-19 than women. Yet another article discussed the initial steps in developing a vaccine for the virus and the chances of their success in curbing the pandemic.

Discussion and conclusions

During crises, the media faces a crucial dilemma between the public’s right to know and the sensitivity required when reporting complex situations. Despite the media’s tendency to ‘rally around the flag’, many believe that in democratic societies, like Israel, the media must uphold its role at all times, particularly during crises, and despite the challenges, it must offer real-time criticism.

This article discussed the Israeli media coverage of the health crisis caused by the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. It illustrated the similarities between covering a health crisis and a wartime security crisis. After collecting thousands of articles from the beginning of the first COVID-19 wave, we sampled 213 articles that met our criteria for the study. From the analysis of these articles, we identified four main themes:

• Establishment preparation. The media extensively covered the various preparations made by the establishment to deal with the COVID-19 pandemic.

• Morbidity: The media extensively covered the existing and expected future scope of morbidity.

• Criticism of the Establishment: The media criticised the establishment’s handling of the COVID-19 crisis.

• Advocacy and information provision: The media provided a significant amount of information to the public about COVID-19 and how to deal with it.

Based on the findings, three main conclusions can be drawn about how the Israeli media covered the COVID-19 crisis during the first wave of the pandemic.

• Media mobilisation in favour of dealing with the COVID-19 virus. One prominent aspect that emerged from the articles is the media’s sense of mobilisation around the new pandemic that caused extreme pressure among the public. The main theme dealt with the establishment’s preparations for the emergency, stressing the extensive scope of the pandemic and the fight against it. The media explained that these actions were intended to reduce, as much as possible, the negative effects of the pandemic. Another theme was the provision and reporting of information received from various operating parties, including the government, the Ministry of Health, and medical organisations. The media’s extensive coverage encouraged the public to obey the instructions and join the common fight against the spread of the disease.

This research suggests, for the first time, that similarities can be identified between media coverage of a pandemic and the coverage of war. Despite the fact that the fight is against an enemy that is less known, absolute, and without clear culprits, the extensive mobilisation of the media and the sense of common purpose in fighting the crisis bears resemblance to the coverage of wartime situations.

• (Some) criticism of the establishment. Despite the media’s mobilisation in the fight against the COVID-19 pandemic and its support for drastic measures to deal with it, it did not shy away at times from criticising the establishment whenever it believed to have detected improper conduct. As shown above, this criticism encompassed a wide range of issues: from the nature of discussions within the government regarding the crisis, to the healthcare system’s poor preparedness, to ongoing crisis management. This theme emerged as the third most common, with over 28% of sampled articles criticising the way the establishment handled the crisis. While the media generally supported the institutional actions taken with a strategic and broad view, it was quick to point out and warn about any actions or decisions it deemed wrong, and in some cases even framed them as failures. It is reasonable to assume that the media’s coverage was driven by its expectations for the crisis to be handled in a professional and effective manner, given the seriousness and urgency of the situation.

• Negative forecasts. Many articles reported on the deteriorating situation and presented a pessimistic outlook for both the short- and long-term future. Negative predictions were most frequently discussed in the context of the scale of morbidity, but also in other areas such as the establishment’s preparedness. The media covered the establishment’s preparations while emphasising the magnitude of the danger, with most forecasts predicting high numbers of infections and deaths. Dramatic language and expressions were used to illustrate the continuous increase in morbidity, creating a sense of a catastrophe with no end in sight. These horror scenarios aligned with the Ministry of Health’s approach, which supported the decision to impose a lockdown and repeatedly emphasised strict adherence to guidelines. However, few voices offered a more optimistic perspective, and little platform was given to less alarming opinions.

As mentioned, this study examined the Israeli media coverage of the first wave of the COVID-19 crisis in Israel, which coincided with the first lockdown. It is reasonable to assume that selecting a different timeframe during the crisis would result in different conclusions, as the character of media coverage would have changed. Therefore, we recommend conducting a follow-up study to investigate how the Israeli media covered the later stages of the crisis, as the fog of uncertainty surrounding the new threat began to dissipate, and the public, establishment, and media gained a clearer understanding of how to respond. The later stages of the crisis included additional lockdowns, which may have contributed to a decrease in the public’s willingness to comply with instructions. Additionally, it can be inferred that later stages of the crisis may have revealed and clarified the establishment’s failures in handling the pandemic, and the character of media coverage may have consequently changed as well.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Correction Statement

This article has been corrected with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Azi Lev-On

Azi Lev-On is a faculty member at the School of Communication, Ariel University.

Judith Yehezkelly

Judith Yehezkelly received her PhD from Ariel University.

Notes

1. Neiger and Zandberg, “Days of Awe”; Schudson, “What’s Unusual”; Zelizer and Allan, “Introduction”; and Wolfsfeld, “Media and the Path to Peace.”

2. Barzilai, “State, Society and National Security”; Doron, “Cannons”; and Lebel, “Conflict.”

3. Vaughan and Tinker, “Effective Health Risk Communication.”

4. Karniel and Wismonsky, “Freedom of Speech.”

5. Tal-Bloom, Zfati, and Weimann, “Strengthens or Weakens.”

6. Biano and Cohen-Almagor, “Israel’s Wars.”

7. Johansson, Hopmann, and Shehata, “When the Rally-Around-the-Flag Effect Disappears.”

8. Lavie-Dinor and Karniel, “The Right to Know.”

9. Ibid.

10. Kitzinger, “Researching Risk.”

11. Weimann, “The Media.”

12. Lavie-Dinor and Karniel, “The Right to Know.”

13. The State Comptroller, https://www.mevaker.gov.il.

14. Boin et al., “The COVID-19 Virus.”

15. Wagner and Reifegerste, “From Black Death to COVID-19.”

16. Stolow et al., “How Fear Approaches in COVID-19 Health Communication.”

17. Ribbeiro and Schwarzenegger, “Introduction.”