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ABSTRACT
‘Urban citizenship’ connotes to statuses and practices centred around the relationship between a locality and (all) individuals present or residing within its territory. This alternative imagination of citizenship (as opposed to formal nation-state citizenship) is based on a presumption of belonging for persons present/resident in the locality (ius domicii) and includes those typically excluded by the nation-state, in a radical vision of equality and non-discrimination. But domestic legal competences of local governments vary significantly across jurisdictions. This article, based on field research in Turkey and Switzerland, explores what role such domestic competences, or the regulation of local governments, plays in facilitating, encouraging, discouraging or obstructing local governments’ engagement with radically inclusive urban citizenship practices. First operationalising the concept of ‘regulation’ and establishing Turkey and Switzerland as low- and high-regulation country contexts respectively, this article identifies four ways in which regulation shapes urban citizenship practices of local governments: (a) by shaping local governments’ perception on their own autonomy; (b) by influencing whether local governments engage in legally foreseen or extra-legal practices; (c) by informing whether and how much local governments categorise different groups of rights-holders and; (d) by affecting which scales these urban citizenship practices are exercised in (upwards, downwards, horizontal).
Notes
1 M. Varsanyi, ‘Interrogating “Urban Citizenship” vis-à-vis Undocumented Migration’, Citizenship Studies 10, no. 2 (2006): 229–49; R. Bauböck, ‘Reinventing Urban Citizenship’, Citizenship Studies no. 7 (2003): 139–60; R. Bauböck and L. Orgad, eds., Cities vs States: Should Urban Citizenship be Emancipated from Nationality?, Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies, Global Governance Programme-386 GLOBALCIT, EUI Working Papers RSCAS 2020/16, 2020; H. Bauder, ‘Urban Citizenship: A Path to Migrant Inclusion’, in Bauböck and Orgad, Cities vs States, 2020; R. A. and A. Bounds, ‘Urban citizenship’, in Democracy, Citizenship and the Global City, ed. E. Isin (New York: Routledge, 2000); J. Brodie, ‘Imagining Democratic Urban Citizenship’, in Democracy, Citizenship and the Global City, ed. E. Isin (2000); B. Oomen, ‘Cities of Refuge: Rights, Culture and the Creation of Cosmopolitan Cityzenship’, in Culture, Citizenship and Human Rights, eds. R. Buikema, A. Buyse, A.C.G.M. Robben (Routledge, 2019); M. Prak, Citizens Without Nations. Urban Citizenship in Europe and the World, c. 1000-1789 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018); K. Stahl, ‘Citizenship Federalism and the Ambiguous Promise of Local Citizenship’, in Bauböck and Orgad, Cities vs States, 2020; M. Purcell, ‘Citizenship and the Right to the Global City: Reimagining the Capitalist World Order’, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, no. 27 (2003): 564–90.
2 Bauböck and Orgad, Cities vs States.
3 Varsanyi, ‘Interrogating “Urban Citizenship”’, 231 calls this ‘grounded, rather than “bounded”’ citizenship. While urban citizenship has received renewed attention in modern times, its history dates back far beyond that of nation states: See Prak, Citizens Without Nations.
4 Ibid., Varsanyi, ‘Interrogating “Urban Citizenship”’.
5 B. Oomen (2020), ‘The Next Step: Coupling City-zenship to Human Rights’, in Bauböck and Orgad, Cities vs States.
6 Varsanyi, ‘Interrogating “Urban Citizenship”’.
7 L. Pedroza, Citizenship Beyond Nationality. Immigrants’ Right to Vote Across the World (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2019); R. Bauböck, From Aliens to Citizens: Redefining the Status of Immigrants in Europe (Brookfield, MA: Avebury, 1994).
8 H. LeFevbre, Le droit à la ville – Suivi de Espace et Politique (Points, 1968); Z. Bauman, ‘Urban Space Wars: On Destructive Order and Creative Chaos’, Citizenship Studies, no. 3 (1999): 173–86; Varsanyi, ‘Interrogating “Urban Citizenship”’.
9 Varsanyi, ‘Interrogating “Urban Citizenship”’; Bauder, ‘Urban Citizenship’; H. Bauder and D. A. Gonzalez, ‘Municipal responses to “Illegality”: Urban Sanctuary Across National Contexts’, Social Inclusion 6, no. 1 (2018): 124–34; E. Gargiulo and L. Piccoli, ‘Mean Cities: The Dark Side of Urban Citizenship’, in Bauböck and Orgad, Cities vs States, 2020; J. Darling and H. Bauder, Sanctuary Cities and Urban Struggles: Rescaling Migration, Citizenship, and Rights (Manchester University Press, 2019); E. de Graauw, ‘Municipal ID Cards for Undocumented Immigrants: Local Bureaucratic Membership in a Federal System’ Politics and Society 42, no. 3 (2014): 309–30; Oomen, ‘Cosmopolitan Cityzenship’; Oomen ‘Coupling City-zenship to Human Rights’.
10 Varsanyi, ‘Interrogating “Urban Citizenship”’; Oomen, ‘Cosmopolitan Cityzenship’; Bauder, ‘Urban Citizenship’.
11 Bauder, ‘Urban Citizenship’, 23 (emphasis mine).
12 Varsanyi, ‘Interrogating “Urban Citizenship”’, 245.
13 A. T. Aleinikoff, ‘Local Citizenship Needs Local Sovereignty’ in Bauböck and Orgad, Cities vs States, 2020, 52.
14 C. Marchetti, ‘Cities of Exclusion: Are Local Authorities Refusing Asylum Seekers?’, in Migration, Borders and Citizenship – Between Policy and Public Spheres. Migration, Diasporas and Citizenship, eds. M. Ambrosini, M. Cinalli, D. Jacobson (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22157-7_11; Gargiulo and Piccoli, ‘Mean Cities’; Bauder and Gonzalez, ‘Municipal responses to “Illegality”’; M. Ambrosini, ‘“We Are Against a Multi-Ethnic Society”: Policies of Exclusion at the Urban Level in Italy’, Ethnic and Racial Studies 36, no. 1 (2013): 136–55, DOI: 10.1080/01419870.2011.644312; de Graauw, ‘Municipal ID Cards for Undocumented Immigrants’; L. Orgad, ‘A Political Promise or a Hollow Hope?’ in Bauböck and Orgad, Cities vs States, 2020.
15 R. T. Ford, ‘City-States and Citizenship’, in Citizenship Today: Global Perspectives and Practices, eds. T. A. Aleinikoff and D. Klusmeyer (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2001); R. Hirschl, City, State: Constitutionalism and the Megacity (OUP, 2020); D. Kaufmann and D. Strebel, ‘Urbanising Migration Policy-Making: Urban Policies in Support of Irregular Migrants in Geneva and Zürich’, Urban Studies 58, no. 14 (2021): 2991–3008. doi:10.1177/0042098020969342; Marchetti, ‘Cities of Exclusion’; B. Oomen, M. Baumgärtel, S. Miellet, E. Durmuş, and T. Sabchev, ‘Strategies Of Divergence: Local Authorities, Law, and Discretionary Spaces in Migration Governance’, Journal of Refugee Studies (2021b): feab062, https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/feab062.
16 Gargiulo and Piccoli, ‘Mean Cities’; Stahl, ‘Citizenship Federalism and the Ambiguous’; Marchetti, ‘Cities of Exclusion’; Oomen et al., ‘Strategies of Divergence’.
17 Field research for Geneva (Summer 2019) and Bern (Summer 2020) were conducted by Natalia Burduli and Lea Jörg respectively, for their Senior Projects at University College Roosevelt. Both Natalia Burduli and Lea Joerg conducted this research for their Bachelor's Theses, and were supervised by me in this process. I am deeply thankful for the pleasure of supervising their hard work and for their academic collegiality and generosity with regards to the data they collected as part of the Cities of Refuge research. All other field research was done by the author between November 2018 and February 2019.
18 Human Rights Council, Role of Local Government in the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights – Final Report of the Human Rights Council Advisory Committee, UN Doc. A/HRC/30/49, 7 August 2015, para 8.
19 I would like to thank Margherita Götze, an excellent graduate of University College Roosevelt, who scanned the online municipal archives of Zürich and Basel for me as a Summer job in July-August 2021.
20 Utrecht University, The Netherlands.
21 www.citiesofrefuge.eu 2017–2022. Funded by the Netherlands Scientific Organisation (NWO), my excellent former team consisted of Prof. Dr. Barbara Oomen, with Dr. Moritz Baumgärtel, Dr Sara Miellet, Dr Tihomir Sabchev, and Gladys Ngare.
22 K. Charmaz, Constructing Grounded Theory (Sage, 2006).
23 W. Magnusson, The Search for Political Space (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1996); P. Schuck, The Devaluation of American Citizenship, Citizens, Strangers, and In-Betweens: Essays on Immigration and Citizenship (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1998); R. Dagger, ‘Metropolis, Memory and Citizenship’, in Democracy, Citizenship and the Global City, ed. E. F. Isin (New York: Routledge, 2000); E. W. Soja, Postmetropolis: Critical Studies of Cities and Regions (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000); Bauböck, ‘Reinventing Urban Citizenship’; Purcell, ‘Citizenship and the Right to the Global City’; S. Sassen, ‘The Repositioning of Citizenship: Emergent Subjects and Spaces for Politics’, CR: The New Centennial Review 3, no. 2 (2003): 41–66; S. Bashevkin, ‘Training a Spotlight on Urban Citizenship: The Case of Women in London and Toronto’, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 29, no. 1 (2005): 9–25; T. Bender, ‘Intellectuals, Cities, and Citizenship in the United States: the 1890s and 1990s’, in Cities and Citizenship, ed. J. Holston (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1999); M. Thom, ‘City, Region, and Nation: Carlo Cattaneo and the Making of Italy’, Citizenship Studies, 3 (1999): 187–202; Varsanyi, ‘Interrogating “Urban Citizenship”’, Oomen, ‘Cosmopolitan Cityzenship’, Darling and Bauder, Sanctuary Cities and Urban Struggles; Bauböck and Orgad, Cities vs States; Bauder and Gonzalez, ‘Municipal responses to “Illegality”’.
24 R. Bauböck, ‘In Defence of Multilevel Citizenship – A Rejoinder’, in Bauböck and Orgad, Cities vs States, 2020b.
25 R. Bauböck, ‘Cities vs States: Should Urban Citizenship be Emancipated from Nationality?’, in Bauböck and Orgad, Cities vs States, 2020a.
26 Varsanyi, ‘Interrogating “Urban Citizenship”’.
27 Ibid.
28 Bauböck and Orgad, Cities vs States.
29 H. P. Aust, ‘Urban Citizenship: A Status or Practice?’, in Bauböck and Orgad, Cities vs States, 2020.
30 Bauböck, ‘Reinventing Urban Citizenship’; H. Bauder, ‘Why We Should Use the Term ‘Illegalized’ Refugee or Immigrant’, International Journal of Refugee Law 26, no. 3 (2014): 327–32; Varsanyi, ‘Interrogating “Urban Citizenship”’; Bauböck, From Aliens to Citizens; R. Bauböck and J. Rundell, Blurred Boundaries: Migration, Ethnicity, Citizenship (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 1998); Brodie, ‘Imagining Democratic Urban Citizenship’; Ford, ‘City-States and Citizenship’; Purcell, ‘Citizenship and the Right to the Global City’.
31 Bauder, ‘Urban Citizenship’, 22; Bauböck, ‘Cities vs States: Should Urban Citizenship’; Varsanyi, ‘Interrogating “Urban Citizenship”’; Oomen, ‘Cosmopolitan Cityzenship’, Warren Magnusson, cited in Bauder, ‘Urban Citizenship’.
32 LeFevbre, Le droit à la ville, 590; Varsanyi, ‘Interrogating “Urban Citizenship”’, 239–40.
33 Bauder, ‘Urban Citizenship’, 22.
34 Ibid.
35 Bauböck, ‘Cities vs States: Should Urban Citizenship’, 4 (emphasis mine).
36 Varsanyi, ‘Interrogating “Urban Citizenship”’.
37 Brodie, ‘Imagining Democratic Urban Citizenship’; Varsanyi, ‘Interrogating “Urban Citizenship”’; De Graauw, ‘Municipal ID Cards for Undocumented Immigrants’; Bauder and Gonzalez, ‘Municipal responses to “Illegality”’; Oomen, ‘Cosmopolitan Cityzenship’, Darling and Bauder, Sanctuary Cities and Urban Struggles; Kaufmann and Strebel, ‘Urbanising Migration Policy-Making’; E. Durmuş, ‘How Human Rights Cross-Pollinate and Take Root: Local Governments and Refugees in Turkey’, in Myth or Lived Reality, eds. C. Boost, A. Broderick, F. Coomans, R. Moerland (The Hague: T.M.C. Asser Press, 2021) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-447-1_6; B. Oomen, M. Baumgärtel, and E. Durmuş, ‘Accelerating Cities, Constitutional Brakes? Local Authorities Between Global Challenges and Domestic Law’, in European Yearbook of Constitutional Law 2020, vol 2, eds. Hirsch Ballin E., van der Schyff G., Stremler M., De Visser M. (T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague, 2021a). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-431-0_12; Oomen et al., ‘Strategies Of Divergence.
38 Bauder, ‘Urban Citizenship’, 23.
39 W. Brown, Walled States, Waning Sovereignty, (New York: Zone Books, 2017), 3; and N. De Genova, ‘The Deportation Regime: Sovereignty, Space, and Freedom of Movement’, in The Deportation Regime: Sovereignty, Space, and Freedom of Movement, eds. De Genova, N and Peutz, N. (Durham: Duke University Press, 2010), 33–64. both cited in Bauder, ‘Urban Citizenship’, 23.
40 Bauder, ‘Urban Citizenship’, 23
41 Interview Franziska Teuscher (Municipality Bern), November 2020.
42 Ibid.
43 Ibid.
44 Ibid.
45 Ibid.
46 Bauder, ‘Urban Citizenship’, 22.
47 Bauder, ‘Urban Citizenship’, 22; B. Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1991), 4; de Shalit, A., (2020), ‘Thinking Like a City, Thinking Like a State’ in Bauböck and Orgad, Cities vs States; Bauböck, ‘Cities vs States: Should Urban Citizenship’.
48 Varsanyi, ‘Interrogating “Urban Citizenship”’. See (also) 231, in which she chose three types of US sub-national government practices of urban citizenship: ‘(1) the contemporary struggle to reinstate local noncitizen voting, (2) the increasing acceptance of the matriculas consulares as a valid form of identification for undocumented Mexican residents, and the debates over whether or not states should (3) issue driver licenses to undocumented migrants and (4) allow undocumented students to pay in-state tuition for public colleges and universities’.
49 Pedroza, Citizenship Beyond Nationality.
50 de Graauw, ‘Municipal ID Cards for Undocumented Immigrants’.
51 Oomen, ‘Cosmopolitan Cityzenship’.
52 ECtHR, Guide on Article 14 of the European Convention on Human Rights and on Article 1 of Protocol No. 12 of the Convention, Updated on 31 August 2022, 6–7, para.3.
53 ECtHR, Sidabras and Džiautas v. Lithuania, 2004; ECtHR, Bigaeva v. Greece, 2009.
54 ECtHR, Andrejeva v. Latvia [GC], 2009; ECtHR, Gaygusuz v. Austria, 1996; ECtHR, Koua Poirrez v. France, 2003; Stummer v. Austria [GC], 2011
55 ECtHR D.H. and Others v. the Czech Republic [GC], 2007; ECtHR, Oršuš and Others v. Croatia [GC], 2010; ECtHR Ponomaryovi v. Bulgaria, 2011.
56 ECtHR, Guide to Art.14.
57 ECtHR, Bah v. UK, 2006, para.45; Yannis Ktistakis, Protecting Migrants under the European Convention on Human Rights and the European Social Charter: A Handbook for Legal Practitioners (2013), Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 14–15; ECHtHR, Fawsie v. Greece and Saoudin v. Greece, 28 October 2010. See also ECtHR Guide on Art. 14, 48, para. 214: ‘Finally, the Court found violations of Article 14 in conjunction with Article 3 of Protocol No. 1 and/or Article 1 of Protocol No. 12 in several cases related to the ability to standfor elections (Sejdić and Finci v. Bosnia and Herzegovina [GC], 2009, which concerned the inability of a Roma and a Jew to stand for parliamentary elections; Zornić v. Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2014, which concerned the ineligibility to stand for election without declaration of affiliation to one of the constitutionally defined ‘constituent peoples’; Baralija v. Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2019, which concerned the impossibility to vote or stand in local elections due to the applicant's place of residence; Danis and Association of Ethnic Turks v. Romania, 2015, and Cegolea v. Romania, 2020, concerning the additional eligibility requirement applicable solely to candidates of national minority organisations not already represented in Parliament) and related to the right to vote (Aziz v. Cyprus, 2004, concerning the impossibility for Turkish Cypriots to vote in parliamentary elections; Selygenenko and Others v. Ukraine, 2021, concerning the discriminatory refusal to allow internally displaced persons to vote in local elections at their place of actual residence)’.
58 H. Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism, (New York:Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973).
59 Bauböck, ‘Cities vs States: Should Urban Citizenship’, 3.
60 Bauböck, ‘In Defence of Multilevel Citizenship’, 79 (emphasis mine).
61 Aleinikoff, ‘Local Citizenship Needs Local Sovereignty’, 52.
62 Orgad, ‘A Political Promise or a Hollow Hope?’, 78.
63 H. Motomura, Immigration Outside the Law (Oxford: OUP, 2016); Oomen et al., ‘Strategies of Divergence, 2.
64 N. Keuffner, ‘Does Local Autonomy Facilitate Local Government Reform Initiatives? Evidence from Switzerland’, International Journal of Public Sector Management 31 no. 4 (2017): 426–47; N. Keuffner and K. Horber-Papazian, ‘The Bottom-Up Approach: Essential to an Apprehension of Local Autonomy and Local Governance in the Case of Switzerland’, Local Government Studies, 46 no. 2 (2020): 306-325, DOI: 10.1080/03003930.2019.1635019; K. W. Debela, ‘Local governance in Switzerland: Adequate Municipal Autonomy Cumintergovernmental Cooperation?’, Cogent Social Sciences 6 no. 1 (2020); 1763889. DOI: 10.1080/23311886.2020.1763889.
65 This is what Zürich, among many other local governments, has been advocating for, for years. The event at the Zürich City Hall in September 2021 (in which I conducted participant observation) on giving non-national Zurchers the right to vote in local elections was very enthusiastic, passionate and heated, with discussions leading to theoretical arguments about abolishing the nation-state.
66 Keuffner, ‘Does Local Autonomy Facilitate’, 432.
67 Ibid., 429.
68 E.g. crisis: Keuffner, ‘Does Local Autonomy Facilitate’, 428–9; individual agency: T. Y. Sabchev, S. Miellet, E. Durmuş, ‘Human Rights Localisation and Individual Agency: From “Hobby of the Few” to the Few Behind the Hobby’, in Myth or Lived Reality, eds. Boost C., Broderick A., Coomans F., Moerland R. (The Hague: T.M.C. Asser Press, 2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-447-1_6; socialisation, political will, funding and cooperation: Durmuş, ‘How Human Rights Cross-Pollinate and Take Root’, 135–47.
69 Aleinikoff, ‘Local Citizenship Needs Local Sovereignty’.
70 Ibid.
71 Orgad, ‘A Political Promise or a Hollow Hope?’, 78.
72 Keuffner, ‘Does Local Autonomy Facilitate Local Government Reform Initiatives?’.
73 Durmuş, E. (2020), ‘A typology of local governments’ engagement with human rights: Legal pluralist contributions to international law and human rights’ Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights, 38(1): 30–54. doi: 10.1177/0924051920903241; Durmuş, ‘How Human Rights Cross-Pollinate and Take Root’.
74 Oomen et al., ‘Strategies of Divergence.
75 Ibid.
76 M. Lipsky, Street-Level Bureaucracy: Dilemmas of the Individual in Public Services (Russell Sage Foundation, 1980).
77 Ibid.
78 Oomen et al., ‘Strategies of Divergence, 2, citing E. Fontanari and M. Ambrosini, ‘Into the Interstices: Everyday Practices of Refugees and Their Supporters in Europe's Migration “Crisis”’, Sociology 52, no. 3 (2018): 587–603.
79 Keuffner, ‘Does Local Autonomy Facilitate Local Government Reform Initiatives?’, 432.
80 Durmuş, ‘How Human Rights Cross-Pollinate and Take Root’.
81 Oomen et al., ‘Accelerating Cities, Constitutional Brakes?’.
82 A. Fels, ‘The Political Economy of Regulation’ UNSWLJ 5 (1982): 29; B. Lange, F. Haines and D. Campbell, eds. ‘Regulatory spaces and interactions’ Special Issue, Social and Legal Studies 12, no. 4 (2003): 411–545; C. Scott, ‘Analysing Regulatory Space: Fragmented Resources and Institutional Design’, Public Law (2001): 283–305. See also: Science Direct, s.v. ‘Regulation Theory’, https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/regulation-theory (accessed 15 February 2024).
83 O. James, ‘Regulation Inside Government: Public Interest Justifications And Regulatory Failures’, Public Administration 78, no. 2 (2000): 327–43. See also for an extensive overview: B. Morgan and K. Yeung, An Introduction to Law and Regulation: Text and Materials of Law in Context (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007).
84 Brittanica, s.v. ‘Regulation Theory’, https://www.britannica.com/topic/governance/Regulation-theory (Accessed 15 February 2024).
85 Law No. 6458, ‘Law on Foreigners and International Protection’ (‘YUKK’), entered into force 11 April 2013, Unofficial English translation by the Department of Communication for Foreigners, Directorate General of Migration Management, Ministry of Interior Affairs, Turkey. https://yimer.gov.tr/EN/Legis/215f1c4c-5384-47f9-9ac2-dc2575b4d48f; Temporary Protection Regulation, adopted by Council of Ministers Decision No: 2014/6883, 22/10/2014 No: 29153, pursuant to Law No 6458.
86 Law No. 6458, ‘Law on Foreigners and International Protection’, Article 7(3): ‘Persons benefiting from temporary protection shall not be deemed as having been directly acquired one of the international protection statuses as defined in the Law’.
87 Ibid., Art. 61.
88 J. Hathaway and M. Foster, The Law of Refugee Status (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511998300.
89 M. M. Erdoğan (2017) ‘Urban Refugees – From “Detachment” to “Harmonisation”: Syrian Refugees and Process Management of Municipalities: The Case of Istanbul’, February 2017, Report conducted and published in Collaboration with the Migration Policy Centre of Marmara Municipalities Union, 40.
90 Law No. 6458, ‘Law on Foreigners and International Protection’, Article 96.
91 Law No 5393, ‘Law of Municipalities’, Art. 13(1), entered into force through publication in the Official Gazette: 13/7/2005 under Number 25874.
92 Ibid., Art.14.
93 Erdoğan, ‘Urban Refugees – From “Detachment” to “Harmonisation”’.
94 Anonymous Interview #12 (Canton Geneva), July 2019.
95 Keuffner, ‘Does Local Autonomy Facilitate Local Government Reform Initiatives?’, 427.
96 M. M. Mexi, P. Moreno Russi and E. F. Guzman, ‘“Fortress” Switzerland? Challenges to Integrating Migrants, Refugees and Asylum-Seekers’, in Migrants, Refugees and Asylum Seekers’ Integration in European Labour Markets, eds. Federico V., Baglioni S., IMISCOE Research Series (Cham: Springer, 2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67284-3_11.
97 Anonymous Interview #10 (Civil Society – Geneva), July 2019. Interview Martenot (Solidarite Tattes – Geneva), July 2019.
98 Anonymous Interview #10 (Civil Society – Geneva), July 2019; M. Flubacher, ‘On ‘Promoting and Demanding’ Integration: A Discursive Case Study of Immigrant Language Policy in Basel’, in Discursive Approaches to Language Policy, eds. Barakos, E., Unger J.W. (2016). DOI 10.1057/978-1-137-53134-6_10.
99 AIDA (Asylum Information Database), Country Report: Switzerland (updated 2020), Available, European Council of Refugees and Exiles, at: https://asylumineurope.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/AIDA-CH_2020update.pdf (last accessed 13 January 2022).
100 Keuffner, ‘Does Local Autonomy Facilitate Local Government Reform Initiatives?’, 427.
101 Ibid.: ‘At the lowest level especially, Swiss municipalities have faced a number of challenges, such as the rising complexity and variety of tasks at a time when their capacity for action was falling’.
102 Integrationsagenda Schweiz, Federal Ministry for Migration, all documents and forms available at: https://www.sem.admin.ch/sem/de/home/integration-einbuergerung/integrationsfoerderung/kantonale-programme/integrationsagenda.html
103 Anonymous Interview #10 (Civil Society – Geneva), July 2019.
104 Interview Yvonne Meier (Municipality Illnau-Effretikon) September 2021; Interview Anonymous #7 (Municipality of Zürich), March 2021; Interview Renata Gäumann (Canton Basel), June 2021; Interview Christina Wandeler (Municipality Zürich), July 2021; Interview Thomas Schmutz #1 (former AOZ – Zürich), July 2021; Interviews Anlaufstelle für Sans-Papiers Basel, September 2021.
105 See also, on how local autonomy is generally considered high in Switzerland, Keuffner and Horber-Papazian, ‘The Bottom-Up Approach’.
106 Erdoğan, ‘Urban Refugees – From “Detachment” to “Harmonisation”’; see also Section 5(b).
107 Anonymous Interview #1 (Civil society – Istanbul), December 2018; Interview Zeytinburnu Municipality AKDEM (Istanbul), December 2018; Interview Turkish Union of Municipalities, External Relations Department, January 2019; Anonymous Interview #3 (International Civil Society – Istanbul), December 2018.
108 Interview Yvonne Meier (Municipality Illnau-Effretikon), September 2021; Interview Renata Gäumann (Canton Basel), June 2021; Interview Anonymous #7 (Municipality of Zürich), March 2021.
109 Keuffner and Horber-Papazian, ‘The Bottom-Up Approach’.
110 Ibid., 311.
111 Interview Sultanbeyli Municipality (Istanbul), December 2018.
112 Interview International Organisation for Migration, Turkey (Ankara), January 2019.
113 Interview Anonymous #3 (International Civil Society), December 2018.
114 See note 112 above; Interview Anonymous #3 (International Civil Society), December 2018.
115 Interview International Organisation for Migration, Turkey (Ankara), January 2019.
116 Interview Bea Schwager (Züri City Card Initiative – Zürich), September 2019; Participant Observation Urban Citizenship Workshop, La Chaux-de-Fonds, September 2021.
117 Participant Observation Urban Citizenship Workshop, La Chaux-de-Fonds, September 2021.
118 Orgad, ‘Cities of Exclusion’, 78.
119 See Section 6(a).
120 Sabchev, T. Y. (2021), Local Authorities, Human rights, and the Reception and Integration of Forced Migrants in Greece and Italy, (Utrecht: Intersentia); Durmuş, ‘How Human Rights Cross-Pollinate and Take Root’.
121 Keuffner, ‘Does Local Autonomy Facilitate Local Government Reform Initiatives?’, 429.
122 Anonymous Interview #1, (Civil Society – Istanbul), December 2018 (decisions are ‘between the two lips of the Mayor”); Anonymous Interview #3 (International Civil Society – Istanbul), December 2018; Interview Turkish Union of Municipalities (Ankara), January 2019; Interview Marmara Municipalities' Union (Istanbul), December 2018; Interview International Organisation for Migration, Turkey (Ankara), January 2019.
123 Durmuş, ‘How Human Rights Cross-Pollinate and Take Root’.
124 Oomen et al., ‘Strategies of Divergence’.
125 Ibid., 7–8.
126 Ibid.
127 Interview Bağcılar Municipality (Istanbul), December 2018; Participant Observation in the International Migration and Integration Symposium, Istanbul, March 2018; Interview Zeytinburnu Municipality (Istanbul), December 2018.
128 Interview Anonymous #1 and Anonymous #2 (Civil Society – Istanbul), December 2018; Interview Çankaya Municipality (Ankara), January 2019; Interview Union of Turkish Municipalities (Ankara), January 2019.
129 See, for an in-depth overview, Durmuş, ‘How Human Rights Cross-Pollinate and Take Root’.
130 Ibid.
131 Anonymous Interview #1, (Civil Society – Istanbul), December 2018.
132 Interview Anonymous #7 (Municipality of Zurich); Interview Thomas Schmutz #1 and #2 (former AOZ, Zurich), June 2021 and September 2021; Interview Bea Schwager (Zueri City Card Initiative), September 2021; Participant Observation in the Urban Citizenship Workshop, La Chaux-de-Fonds, September 2021.
133 Interview Anonymous #7 (Municipality of Zurich), March 2021; Interview Thomas Schmutz #1 and #2 (former AOZ, Zurich), June 2021 and September 2021; Participant Observation in the Urban Citizenship Workshop, La Chaux-de-Fonds, September 2021.
134 Interview Anonymous #7 (Municipality of Zurich), March 2021; Interview Thomas Schmutz #1 and #2 (former AOZ, Zurich), June 2021 and September 2021; Interview Bea Schwager (Zueri City Card Initiative), September 2021; Participant Observation in the Urban Citizenship Workshop, La Chaux-de-Fonds, September 2021.
135 Ibid.
136 Ibid.
137 ‘Fragen zur Züri City-Card’, 24.02.2021, Answers to the questions 1–3 posed on the Züri City Card on 16.12.2020, by Bundesraetin Fiala Doris of the liberal party (FDP). https://www.parlament.ch/de/ratsbetrieb/suche-curia-vista/geschaeft?AffairId=20204528. Translation mine. Original: ‘Die "City Card" ist eine Initiative der Stadt Zürich, die sich nicht auf Bundesrecht stützt. (…) Solche Ausweise wären somit rechtlich nicht verbindlich, und es könnte daraus kein rechtmässiger Aufenthalt abgeleitet werden. Die Einführung einer solchen Karte als Identitätsausweis würde daher gegen Bundesrecht verstossen’.
138 Anonymous Interview #10 (Civil Society – Geneva), July 2019.
139 Ibid.
140 Interview Thomas Schmutz #1 (former AOZ – Zürich), July 2021; Interview Martenot (Solidarite Tattes Geneva), July 2019.
141 Cities of Refuge, Interview Pim Fischer (human rights lawyer active in the Netherlands), March 2018.
142 Interview Zeytinburnu Municipality (Istanbul), December 2018.
143 Interview Keçiören Municipality (Ankara), January 2019; Interview International Organisation for Migration (Ankara), January 2019.
144 Interview Sultanbeyli Municipality (Istanbul), December 2018.
145 Interview Şişli Municipality (Istanbul), December 2018.
146 Interview IOM (Ankara), January 2019; Interview Keçiören Municipality (Ankara), January 2019.
147 Interview Bernard (Municipality Geneva), July 2019; Anonymous Interview #7 (Municipality of Zürich), March 2021; Interview Thomas Schmutz #1 (former AOZ Zürich), July 2021; Interview Sarah Schilliger (Wir sind alle Bern – Bern), November 2020; Interview Christina Wandeler (Municipality of Zürich), July 2021.
148 Anonymous Interview #10 (Civil Society – Geneva), July 2019.
149 Anonymous Interview #12 (Canton of Geneva), Interview Gäumann (Canton Basel-Stadt), June 2021.
150 See note 148 above.
151 Interview Bağcılar Municipality (Istanbul), December 2018.
152 Interview and Focus Group Ankara Metropolitan Municipality, January 2019.
153 Press Release of the City of Zürich, Department of Social Affairs, ‘Stadt Zürich fordert umgehend eine nationale Konferenz zur Direktaufnahme Geflüchteter’, 10 September 2020, https://www.stadt-zuerich.ch/sd/de/index/ueber_das_departement/medien/medienmitteilungen_aktuell/2020/september/200910a.html (last accessed 20.02.2022).
154 Bart Oertli, ‘Schweizer Städte wollen mehr afghanische Flüchtlinge aufnehmen’, SRF, 19 August 2021, https://www.srf.ch/news/schweiz/staedte-kritisieren-bund-schweizer-staedte-wollen-mehr-afghanische-fluechtlinge-aufnehmen (last accessed 20.02.2022); Interview Anonymous #7 (Municipality Zürich), March 2021; Interview Christina Wandeler (Municipality Zürich), July 2021.
155 Press Release Zürich, ‘Stadt Zürich fordert umgehend eine nationale'.
156 Oertli, ‘Schweizer Städte wollen’.
157 Interviews Kontaktstelle für Sans Papiers Basel, September 2021; Interview Anonymous #13 (Civil Society – Zurich), September 2021.
158 Interview Renata Gäumann (Canton Basel-Stadt), June 2021.
159 Ibid.
160 Interviews Kontaktstelle für Sans Papiers Basel, December 2021; Anonymous Interview #12 (Canton Geneva), July 2019.
161 Ibid.
162 ‘Gesamthafte Prüfung der Problematik der Sans-Papiers - Bericht des Bundesrats in Erfüllung des Postulats der Staatspolitischen Kommission des Nationalrats vom 12. April 2018 (18.3381)’, Bern, December 2020, 24.
163 Interview IOM (Ankara), January 2019; Interview Anonymous #1 (International Civil Society – Istanbul), December 2018; Interview Anonymous #2 and Anonymous #3 (Civil Society – Istanbul), both December 2018.
164 This was what the Mayor of Bağcılar did in the 2018 International Migration and Integration Symposium co-organised by Bağcılar Municipality.
165 Keuffner and Horber-Papazian, ‘The Bottom-Up Approach’.
166 Oomen et al.‘Accelerating Cities, Constitutional Brakes?; Oomen et al., ‘Strategies of Divergence’.
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Elif Durmuş
Elif Durmuş is a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Antwerp, Faculty of Law. iBOF project ‘Future-Proofing Human Rights: Developing Thicker Accountability’ (Antigoon ID: 42367), Belgium.