https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5440-1462
![Sample our Politics & International Relations journals, sign in here to start your FREE access for 14 days]({"type":"image" , "src" : "/sda/5947/TOC-Subject-Sample-2021-Politics-International-Relations.jpg"})
ABSTRACT
After Russia’s massive Cyber-attacks on Ukraine’s government and bank sectors in January–February 2022, many analysts alleged that Cyber-power would be a crucial component of Russia’s military victory in Ukraine. Contrary to these expectations, however, Russian Cyber-intrusions yielded meagre strategic benefits, with Moscow seemingly prioritising conventional warfare and destruction of energy and civilian infrastructure instead. Using a theory of asymmetric conflict, this paper argues, somewhat counterintuitively, that the reason behind inhibited efficacy of Russian Cyber-operations post-2022 are Moscow’s prior Cyber-attacks against Ukraine since 2013. While having helped the Kremlin weaken Ukraine’s Cyber-networks and collect local intelligence, these antecedent Cyber-operations have provided a two-pronged learning loop: for Ukraine to cultivate habits of mitigating Russian Cyber-threats, and for Russia to acquire habits of relying on information operations more than on destructive Cyber-attacks. This “pedagogical” mechanism ultimately enabled Ukraine to redress its Cyber-asymmetry with Russia and deny Moscow success in its Cyber-intrusions post-2022.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 William Turton and Andrew Martin, ‘Russian Cyberwar in Ukraine Stumbles Just Like Conventional One’, Bloomberg, March 9, 2023, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-03-09/russian-Cyberwar-in-ukraine-stumbles-just-like-conventional-one; Elias Groll and AJ Vicens, ‘A Year After Russia’s Invasion, the Scope of Cyberwar in Ukraine Comes into Focus’, Cyberscoop, February 24, 2023, https://Cyberscoop.com/ukraine-russia-Cyberwar-anniversary/.
2 Gavin Wilde, ‘Cyber Operations in Ukraine: Russia’s Unmet Expectations’, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, December 12, 2022, https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/12/12/Cyber-operations-in-ukraine-russia-s-unmet-expectations-pub-88607.
3 Marcus Willett, ‘The Cyber Dimension of the Russia-Ukraine War’, Survival 64, no. 5 (2022): 22–3.
4 James Andrew Lewis, ‘Cyber War and Ukraine’. Center for Strategic and International Studies, June 16, 2022, https://www.csis.org/analysis/Cyber-war-and-ukraine.
5 Ibid.
6 Yurii Shchyhol, ‘Russia’s Cyberwar Against Ukraine Offers Vital Lessons For The West’, Atlantic Council, January 31, 2023, https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/ukrainealert/russias-Cyberwar-against-ukraine-offers-vital-lessons-for-the-west/.
7 Jason Healey, ‘Ukrainian Cyber War Confirms the Lesson: Cyber Power Requires Soft Power’, Council on Foreign Relations, April 4, 2023, https://www.cfr.org/blog/ukrainian-Cyber-war-confirms-lesson-Cyber-power-requires-soft-power.
8 Aaron Clarke, Hacking the Invasion: The Cyber Implications of Russia’s Invasion of Ukraine (Third Way, 2022), 4, 6.
9 Jon Bateman, ‘Russia’s Wartime Cyber Operations in Ukraine: Military Impacts, Influences, and Implications’, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, December 16, 2022, https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/12/16/russia-s-wartime-Cyber-operations-in-ukraine-military-impacts-influences-and-implications-pub-88657: 33.
10 Matthias Schulze and Mika Kerttunen, ‘Cyber Operations in Russia’s War against Ukraine’, German Institute for International and Security Affairs, April, 2023, https://www.swp-berlin.org/publications/products/comments/2023C23_CyberOperations_UkraineWar.pdf: 1.
11 Ibid., 7.
12 Ivan Arreguín-Toft, ‘How the Weak Win Wars’, International Security 26, no. 1 (2001): 100.
13 Ibid., 101.
14 Ibid., 103.
15 Ibid.
16 Ibid., 105.
17 Ibid.
18 Ibid., 106.
19 Glib Pakharenko, ‘Cyber Operations at Maidan: A First-Hand Account’, in Cyber War in Perspective: Russian Aggression against Ukraine, ed. Kenneth Geers (Tallinn: NATO CCD COE Publications, 2015), 61, 64.
20 Dmytro Dubov, Kіberprostіr iak Novyi Vymіr Heopolіtychnoho Supernytstva: Monohrafіia [Cyberspace as a New Dimension of Geopolitical Rivalry: a Monograph] (Kyiv: NISS, 2014), 214.
21 Pakharenko, ‘Cyber Operations’, 62.
22 Dubov, ‘Kіberprostіr’, 215.
23 Pakharenko, ‘Cyber Operations’, 63.
24 Nikolay Koval, ‘Revolution Hacking’, in Cyber War in Perspective: Russian Aggression against Ukraine, ed. Kenneth Geers (Tallinn: NATO CCD COE Publications, 2015), 56.
25 Pakharenko, ‘Cyber Operations’, 64.
26 Zarazhennia Vіrusom Uroburos’ Зараження Вірусом Uroburos [Uroburos Virus Infection], CERT-UA, March 19, 2014, https://cert.gov.ua/?p=344.
27 ‘Operation Armageddon: Cyber Espionage as a Strategic Component of Russian Modern Warfare – CTIG Report’, Looking Glass Cyber, April 28, 2015, https://lgscout.com/operation-armageddon-Cyber-espionage-as-a-strategic-component-of-russian-modern-warfare-ctig-report/.
28 Kenneth Geers, Cyber War in Perspective: Russian Aggression against Ukraine (Tallinn: NATO CCD COE Publications, 2015), 11.
29 ‘U Samooborony Maidanu Z’iavylasia “Kіbersotnia”’ [A ‘Cyber Hundred’ Established in Maidan’s Self-Defence Units], Detector Media, February 14, 2014, https://ms.detector.media/kiberbezpeka/post/1616/2014-02-14-u-samooboroni-maydanu-zyavylasya-kibersotnya/.
30 Computer Emergency Response Team of Ukraine.
31 Maiia Iarovaia, ‘V Ukraine Uzakonili Kibervoiska’ [In Ukraine, the Cyber Army Was Legalized], Ain, May 21, 2014, https://ain.ua/2014/05/21/525126.
32 Ibid.
33 Koval, ‘Revolution Hacking’, 56.
34 Ibid.
35 Ibid.
36 ‘Ukraїna Rozrakhovuie na Dopomohu NATO n Kіberzakhystі Vyborchoї Systemy’ [Ukraine is Counting on NATO’s Help in Cyber Protection of the Election System], Ukrinform, December 28, 2018, https://www.ukrinform.ua/rubric-polytics/2610138-ukraina-rozrahovue-na-dopomogu-nato-v-kiberzahisti-viborcoi-sistemi.html.
37 ‘Khakers’ka Ataka Rosії na Ukraїns’ku Enerhosystemu: Iak Tse Bulo’ [Russia’s Hacking Attack on the Ukrainian Energy System: How It Happened], Texty.org.ua, March 17, 2016, https://texty.org.ua/articles/66125/Hakerska_ataka_Rosiji_na_ukrajinsku_jenergosystemu_jak-66125/.
38 ‘Mіnenerhovuhіllia Maie Namіr Utvoryty Hrupu za Uchastiu Predstavnykіv Usіkh Enerhetychnykh Kompanіi, shcho Vhodiat' do Sfery Upravlіnnia Mіnіsterstva, dlia Vyvchennia Mozhlyvostei shchodo Zapobіhannia Nesanktsіonovanomu Vtruchanniu v Robotu Enerhomerezh’ [The Ministry of Energy and Coal Intends to Form a Group with the Participation of Representatives of all Energy Companies under the Ministry’s Management to Study the Possibilities of Preventing Unauthorized Interference in the Operation of Energy Networks], Ministry of Energy of Ukraine, February 12, 2016, https://mpe.kmu.gov.ua/minugol/control/uk/publish/article?art_id=245086886&cat_id=35109.
39 Vladimir Skripin, ‘Osnovnoi Versiei Nedavnego Otkhliucheniia Elekhtrichestva v Kieve Nazvana Kiberataka Khakerov’ [The Main Version of the Recent Power Outage in Kyiv Is a Cyber Attack by Hackers], ITC, December 19, 2016, https://itc.ua/news/osnovnoy-versiey-nedavnego-otklyucheniya-elektrichestva-v-kieve-nazvana-kiberataka-hakerov/.
40 Sergei Kulesh, ‘Gossluzhba Spetssviazi Ukrainy obnaruzhila Virus Black Energy v Seti Aeroporta “Borispol”’ [The State Service for Special Communications of Ukraine Discovered the Black Energy Virus in the Network of the Boryspil Airport], ITC, January 18, 2016, https://itc.ua/news/gossluzhba-spetssvyazi-obnaruzhila-virus-black-energy-v-seti-aeroporta-borispol/.
41 Vladislav Nekrasov, ‘Ukraїna Prohraie Kіbervіinu. Khakery Atakuiut' Derzhavnі Fіnansy’ [Ukraine Will Lose the Cyber War. Hackers Attack Public Finances], European Pravda, December 9, 2016, https://www.epravda.com.ua/publications/2016/12/9/613957/.
42 Lizzie Dearden, ‘Ukraine Cyber Attack: Chaos as National Bank, State Power Provider and Airport Hit by Hackers’, Independent, June 27, 2017, https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/ukraine-Cyber-attack-hackers-national-bank-state-power-company-airport-rozenko-pavlo-cabinet-computers-wannacry-ransomware-a7810471.html.
43 Nastia Korynovs’ka, ‘V Ukraїnі Desiatki Kompanіi ta Ustanov Atakuvav Komp’iuternyi Vіrus [In Ukraine, Dozens of Companies and Institutions Were Attacked by a Computer Virus], Hromadske, June 27, 2017, https://hromadske.ua/posts/ukrposhtu-ukrenerho-ta-banky-atakuvav-podibnyi-do-wannacry-virus.
44 Andrew Griffin, ‘“Petya” Cyber Attack: Chernobyl's Radiation Monitoring System Hit by Worldwide Hack’, Independent, June 27, 2017, https://www.independent.co.uk/tech/chernobyl-ukraine-petya-Cyber-attack-hack-nuclear-power-plant-danger-latest-a7810941.html.
45 ‘Cyber Attack on Ukrainian Government and Corporate Networks Halted’, Ukrinform, June 28, 2017, https://www.ukrinform.net/rubric-polytics/2255698-Cyber-attack-on-ukrainian-government-and-corporate-networks-halted.html.
46 ‘Cherez Masshtabnu Vіrusnu Ataku ne Praciuiut' Banky, Medіa, Servіsy’ [Due to a Large-Scale Virus Attack, Banks, Media, and Services Are not Working], Ukrainska Pravda, June 27, 2017, https://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2017/06/27/7148069/.
47 ‘Vіrus Petya Zachepyv Ponad 1,5 Tysiach Iurydychnykh і Fіzychnykh Osіb’ [The Petya Virus Affected More Than 1500 Legal Entities and Individuals], Ukrainska Pravda, June 29, 2017, https://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2017/06/29/7148210/.
48 Margarita Gerasiukova, ‘Virus Novogo Pokoleniia: Kak Kiberataka NotPetya Izmenila Mir’ [New generation virus: how the NotPetya Cyberattack changed the world], Gazeta.ru, June 27, 2020, https://www.gazeta.ru/tech/2020/06/26/13132537/petya_is_three.shtml; ‘Informatsionnaia Sistema Evraz Podverglas' Khakerskoi Atake’ [Evraz information system was hacked], RIA Novosti, June 27, 2017, https://ria.ru/20170627/1497385373.html.
49 ‘U Kіberpolіtsії Ukraїny Pіdtverdyly Ataku z Zastosuvanniam Vіrusu-Shyfruval'nyka BadRabbit’ [The Cyber Police of Ukraine Confirmed the Attack Using the BadRabbit Encryption Virus], Radio Svoboda, October 24, 2017, https://www.radiosvoboda.org/a/news/28813482.html.
50 Ibid.
51 Texty.org.ua, ‘Khakers'ka Ataka Rosії’.
52 Ministry of Energy of Ukraine, ‘Mіnenerhovuhіllia’.
53 Skripin, ‘Osnovnoi Versiei’.
54 Ukrinform, ‘Cyber Attack on Ukrainian Government’.
55 Nekrasov, ‘Ukraїna Prohraie’.
56 Olha Minchenko, ‘Ukraїna Vvela Sanktsії proty Rosіis'kykh Rozrobnykіv Antyvіrusіv “Doktor Veb” і “Laboratorіia Kaspers'koho”’ [Ukraine Introduced Sanctions against the Russian Developers of Antiviruses “Doctor Web” and “Kaspersky Laboratory”], Watcher, September 17, 2015, https://watcher.com.ua/2015/09/17/ukrayina-vvela-sanktsiyi-proty-rosiyskyh-rozrobnykiv-antyvirusiv-doktor-veb-i-laboratoriya-kasperskoho/.
57 ‘Poroshenko Zatverdyv Stratehіiu Kіberbezpeky Ukraїny’ [Poroshenko Approved Ukraine's Cybersecurity Strategy], Den, March, 16, 2016, https://www.day.kiev.ua/uk/news/160316-poroshenko-zatverdyv-strategiyu-kiberbezpeky-ukrayiny.
58 ‘Za Kіberbezpeku Ukraїny Vіdpovіdatyme Turchynov’ [Turchynov Will Be Responsible for Ukraine's Cyber Security], Texty.org.ua, June 8, 2016, https://texty.org.ua/fragments/68176/Za_kiberbezpeku_Ukrajiny_vidpovidatyme_Turchynov-68176/.
59 ‘U SBU vіdbulasia tseremonіia zavershennia pershoho etapu Trastovoho fondu NATO zі Spriiannia Ukraїnі v Zmіtsnennі Kіberzakhystu’ [The SBU Held a Ceremony for the Completion of the First Stage of the NATO Trust Fund to Assist Ukraine in Strengthening Cyber Defence], Sluzhba Bezpekhy Ukrainy, July 7, 2017, https://www.ssu.gov.ua/ua/news/1/category/2/view/3668#.dnBn8P1V.dpbs.
60 Oleh Dmytrenko, ‘Poroshenko Vvіv u Dіiu Rіshennia RNBO shchodo Kardynal'noho Posylennia Zakhodіv Kіberbezpeky Derzhavy’ [Poroshenko Put into Effect the Decision of the National Security Council regarding the Drastic Strengthening of State Cyber Security Measures], Watcher, August 31, 2017, https://watcher.com.ua/2017/08/31/poroshenko-vviv-u-diyu-rishennya-rnbo-schodo-kardynalnoho-posylennya-zahodiv-kiberbezpeky-derzhavy/.
61 ‘Poroshenko Pіdpysav Nakaz pro Zaboronu “Iandeks”, “Vkontakte” i “Odnoklassniki”’ [Poroshenko Signed an Order to Ban Yandex, Vkontakte and Odnoklassniki], Den, May 16, 2017, https://day.kyiv.ua/uk/news/160517-poroshenko-pidpysav-nakaz-pro-vvedennya-sankciy-proty-yandeks-vkontakte-y-odnoklassnyky.
62 ‘Rosіia Vіdkryvaie Vіzy dlia Teroru v Ukraїnі – Vytіk Pasportnykh Danykh Naimantsіv’ [Russia Opens Visas for Terror in Ukraine – the Leak of Passport Data of Mercenaries], Informnapalm, April 3, 2016, https://informnapalm.org/ua/rosiya-vidkryvaye-vizy-dlya-teroru-v-ukrayini-vytik-pasportnyh-danyh-najmantsiv/.
63 ‘Ukraїns'kі Khakery Zlamaly Rosiis'kyi Pershyi Kanal’ [Ukrainian Hackers Hacked the Russian First Channel], Censor.net, June 9, 2016, https://censor.net/ua/photo_news/392646/ukrayinski_hakery_zlamaly_rosiyiskyyi_pershyyi_kanal_informnapalm_foto.
64 ‘Ukraїns'kі Khakery Zlamaly Dev'iat' Saitіv DNR na Den' Peremohy’ [Ukrainian Hackers Hacked Nine DPR Websites on Victory Day], RBK Ukraine, May 10, 2016, https://www.rbc.ua/ukr/lnews/ukrainskie-hakery-vzlomali-devyat-saytov-1462883294.html.
65 Mykhailo Shtekhel’, ‘Rosіia Rozrobliaie Vіis'kovu Doktrynu Perevahy v Povіtrі – Ukraїns'kі Khakery’ [Russia is Developing a Military Doctrine of Air Superiority – Ukrainian Hackers], Radio Svoboda, December 1, 2016, https://www.radiosvoboda.org/a/28151063.html.
66 Donetsk People’s Republic.
67 ‘Otsіnka Stanu Vuhіl'noї Promyslovostі Okupovanykh Teritorіi Donbasu’ [Assessment of the State of the Coal Industry in the Occupied Territories of Donbas], Informnapalm, November 10, 2016, https://informnapalm.org/ua/energetyka-okupovanyh-terytorij-donbasu/.
68 ‘Vіdnovleno Khronolohіiu Vtorhnennia Artylerіis'koho Pіdrozdіlu 136-ї OMSBr ZS RF v Ukraїnu’ [The Chronology of the Invasion of Ukraine by the Artillery Unit of the 136th Infantry Brigade of the Russian Armed Forces Has Been Restored], Informnapalm, July 28, 2017, https://informnapalm.org/ua/vidnovleno-hronologiyu-vtorgnennya-136-yi-omsbr-zs-rf-v-ukrayinu/.
69 ‘SurkovLeaks (Part 3): Analіz Lystuvannia Pershoho Zastupnyka Surkova Іnala Ardzіnbi’ [SurkovLeaks (Part 3): Analysis Of The Correspondence of Surkov's First Deputy Inal Ardzinba], Informnapalm, November 2, 2017 https://informnapalm.org/ua/surkovleaks-part-3-analiz-lystuvannya-ardzinby/.
70 ‘Povіdomlennia Pro Mіnuvannia Staly Aktyvnymy, Vony Nadhodiat' Z RF І Okupovanykh Teritorіi – MVS’ [Notifications About Landmines Have Poured In, They Come From The Russian Federation And The Occupied Territories – The Ministry Of Internal Affairs], Interfax Ukraine, April 21, 2019, https://interfax.com.ua/news/election/582472.html.
71 Pavel Polityuk, ‘Exclusive: Ukraine Says It Sees Surge In Cyber Attacks Targeting Election’, Reuters, January 25, 2019, https://www.reuters.com/article/ctech-us-ukraine-Cyber-exclusive-idCAKCN1PJ1KX-OCATC.
72 Lennart Maschmeyer, Alexei Abrahams, Peter Pomerantsev and Volodymyr Yermolenko, ‘Donetsk Don’t Tell – “Hybrid War” in Ukraine and the Limits Of Social Media Influence Operations’, Journal of Information Technology & Politics (2023): 7.
73 Sergei Kulesh, ‘SBU Otkryla v Kieve Situatsionnyi Tsentr Obespecheniia Kiberbezopasnosti s Sistemoi Reagirovaniia na Kiberintsidenty i Laboratoriei Komp'iuternoi Kriminalistiki’ [The Security Service of Ukraine Opened a Situational Cyber Security Center in Kyiv with a Cyber Incident Response System and a Computer Forensics Laboratory], ITC, January 26, 2018, https://itc.ua/news/sbu-otkryila-v-kieve-situatsionnyiy-tsentr-obespecheniya-kiberbezopasnosti-s-sistemoy-reagirovaniya-na-kiberintsidentyi-i-laboratoriey-kompyuternoy-kriminalistiki/.
74 ‘U systemі Mіnoborony Ukraїny Zapochatkovano Proiekt Stvorennia Kіbervіis'k’ [The Project of Creating Cyber Troops Has Been Launched in the System of the Ministry of Defence of Ukraine], Ministry of Defence of Ukraine, October 6, 2021, https://www.mil.gov.ua/news/2021/10/07/u-sistemi-minoboroni-ukraini-zapochatkovano-proekt-stvorennya-kibervijsk/.
75 ‘Destructive Malware Targeting Ukrainian Organizations’, Microsoft, January 15, 2022, https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/security/blog/2022/01/15/destructive-malware-targeting-ukrainian-organizations/.
76 Pavel Polityuk, ‘Hackers Likely Used Software Administration Rights of Third Party to Hit Ukrainian Sites, Kyiv Says’, Reuters, January 15, 2022, https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/exclusive-hackers-likely-used-software-administration-rights-third-party-hit-2022-01-14/.
77 Olha Karpenko, ‘Shcho Vіdomo pro DDoS-Ataku na Derzhsaity ta Banky: Pіk do 150 Gbіt/s, Imovіrno z RF’ [What is Known About the DDoS Attack on State Websites and Banks: Peak up to 150 Gbps, Probably from the Russian Federation], Ain, February 16, 2022, https://ain.ua/2022/02/16/shho-vidomo-pro-ddos-ataku-15-lut/.
78 ‘15 Liutoho Ukraїna Vіdbyla Naibіl'shu v Іstorії Kraїny DDoS-Ataku, shcho Bula Spriamovana na Bankіvs'kyi Sektor, Ofіtsіinі Saity Orhanіv Vlady, Enerhetychnyi Blok ta Portal Dіia’ [On February 15, Ukraine Repelled the Largest DDoS Attack in the History of the Country, which Was Aimed at the Banking Sector, Official Websites of the Authorities, the Energy Block and the Diya Portal], Ministry and Committee for Digital Transformation of Ukraine, February 18, 2022, https://thedigital.gov.ua/news/mikhaylo-fedorov-ukraina-zmogla-vidbiti-naybilshu-za-vsyu-istoriyu-kraini-kiberataku.
79 ‘An Overview of Russia’s Cyberattack Activity in Ukraine’, Microsoft, April 27, 2022, https://query.prod.cms.rt.microsoft.com/cms/api/am/binary/RE4Vwwd.
80 ‘Saity Bankіv ta Orhanіv Vlady Zaznaly Masovoї DDoS-Ataky’ [Websites of Banks and Authorities were Subjected to a Massive DDoS Attack], Ukrinform, February 23, 2022, https://www.ukrinform.ua/rubric-technology/3410542-sajti-bankiv-ta-organiv-vladi-zaznali-masovoi-ddosataki.html.
81 ‘Sait Kyїvs'koї ODA Atakuiut' Khakery’ [Hackers are Attacking the Site of the Kyiv Regional State Administration], Ukrinform, February 24, 2022, https://www.ukrinform.ua/rubric-technology/3411812-sajt-kiivskoi-oda-atakuut-hakeri.html.
82 ‘Email-Adresy Ukraїns'kykh Vіis'kovykh Atakuiut' Khakery’ [Email Addresses of the Ukrainian Military Are Being Attacked by Hackers], Ukrinform, February 25, 2022, https://www.ukrinform.ua/rubric-technology/3412829-emailadresi-ukrainskih-vijskovih-atakuut-hakeri.html.
83 Microsoft, ‘An Overview’, 8.
84 Ibid., 7.
85 Ibid.
86 Ibid., 13–14.
87 Ibid., 14.
88 Ibid., 4.
89 Ibid., 4.
90 Ibid.
91 Ibid., 15.
92 ‘Khakery RaHDIt Obnarodovali Dannye 700 Sotrudnikov SBU’ [RaHDIt Hackers Released Details of 700 SBU Employees], Izvestiya, June 1, 2022, https://iz.ru/1343054/2022-06-01/khakery-rahdit-obnarodovali-dannye-700-sotrudnikov-sbu.
93 ‘Khakery RaHDit Opublikovali Kadrovye Dokumenty “Azova”’ [RaHDit Hackers Published Personnel Documents of Azov], RIA Novosti, February 28, 2023, https://ria.ru/20230228/khaker-1854756156.html.
94 ‘Khakery iz “Armii Spaseniia Ukrainy” Vzlomali Saity Ukrainskikh Gosresursov’ [Hackers from the Salvation Army of Ukraine Hacked the Websites of Ukrainian State Resources], Radio Sputnik, May 18, 2023, https://radiosputnik.ria.ru/20230518/khakery-1872778569.html.
95 ‘Kharakter Kіberatak na Ukraїnu Vkazuie na Pіdhotovku Rosії do Tryvaloї Vіiny – Derzhspetszv'iazku’ [The Nature of Cyberattacks on Ukraine Indicates Russia's Preparation for a Long War – State Special Forces], Slovo i Dilo, March 25, 2023, https://www.slovoidilo.ua/2023/03/25/novyna/bezpeka/xarakter-kiberatak-ukrayinu-vkazuye-pidhotovku-rosiyi-tryvaloyi-vijny-derzhspeczzvyazku.
96 Iryna Lysohor, ‘Rosіia Shchodenno Zdіisniuie Blyz'ko 10 Kіberatak Proti Ukraїni’ [Russia Carries Out About 10 Cyberattacks Against Ukraine Every Day], LB.ua, February 28, 2023, https://lb.ua/society/2023/02/28/547362_rosiya_shchodenno_zdiysnyuie_blizko_10.html.
97 ‘Ukraine Cyber-Attack: Russia to Blame for Hack, Says Kyiv’, BBC, January 14, 2022, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-59992531.
98 ‘Fedorov Rozpovіv Podrobytsі Cherhovoї Ataky Khakerіv proty Ukraїny’ [Fedorov Told the Details of Another Hacker Attack against Ukraine], Slovo i Dilo, February 23, 2022, https://www.slovoidilo.ua/2022/02/23/novyna/polityka/fedorov-rozpoviv-podrobyczi-cherhovoyi-ataky-xakeriv-proty-ukrayiny.
99 ‘Shchodo Kіberataky na Saity Vіis'kovykh Struktur ta Derzhavnykh Bankіv’ [Regarding the Cyber Attack on the Websites of Military Structures and State Banks], State Special Communications Service of Ukraine, February 15, 2022, https://www.cip.gov.ua/ua/news/shodo-kiberataki-na-saiti-viiskovikh-struktur-ta-derzhavnikh-bankiv.
100 Karpenko, ‘Shcho Vіdomo’.
101 Ibid.
102 Ukrinform, ‘Saity Bankіv’.
103 Slovo i Dilo, ‘Fedorov Rozpovіv’.
104 ‘Ukraine Crisis: “Wiper” Discovered In Latest Cyber-Attacks’, BBC, February 24, 2022, https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-60500618.
105 ‘Vіina Rosії proty Ukraїny: Khronolohіia Kіberatak’ [Russia's War against Ukraine: Chronology of Cyber Attacks], European Parliament, October 2022, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2022/733549/EPRS_BRI(2022)733549_XL.pdf: 6.
106 Ibid.
107 ‘Hackers Bring Down Government Sites in Ukraine’, The New York Times, January 14, 2022, https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/14/world/europe/hackers-ukraine-government-sites.html.
108 Microsoft, ‘An Overview’, 16.
109 Ibid.
110 IT Army Of Ukraine [Official Website] https://itarmy.com.ua/.
111 Oleh Pavliuk, ‘Khakery Atakuvaly Saity Kremlia, “Roskomnadzora” і, Imovіrno, Zlamaly Rosіis'kі Telekanaly’ [Hackers Attacked the Websites of the Kremlin, “Roskomnadzor” and probably Hacked Russian TV Channels], Suspilne, February 26, 2022, https://web.archive.org/web/20220226180853/https://suspilne.media/211432-hakeri-atakuvali-sajti-kremla-roskomnadzora-i-jmovirno-zlamali-rosijski-telekanali/.
112 Nazarii Kurochko, ‘Kak Rossiia i Ukraina Voiuiut na Kiberfronte’ [How Russia and Ukraine are Fighting on the Cyber Front], European Pravda, September 28, 2022, https://www.epravda.com.ua/rus/columns/2022/09/28/691925/.
113 Ibid.
114 Anonymous, ‘Iak Boriut'sia Ukraїns'kі Kіbervіis'ka’ [How Ukrainian Cyber Troops Fight], Ukrainska Pravda, March 1, 2022, https://www.pravda.com.ua/columns/2022/03/1/7327173/.
115 Ibid.
116 Ibid.
117 Kurochko, ‘Kak Rossiia’.
Additional information
Funding
Notes on contributors
Roman Kolodii
Roman Kolodii is Ukrainian postgraduate student in the Area Studies PhD programme at Charles University (Czech Republic) where his research interests lie at the intersection of science and technology, on the one hand, and great power politics, with a special focus on Russia and China, on the other. His PhD dissertation topic is on the role of science and technology in Russo-Chinese strategic alignment.