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Bulletin of Spanish Studies
Hispanic Studies and Researches on Spain, Portugal and Latin America
Volume 101, 2024 - Issue 1
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Articles

The Day Madrid Became Rome: The Reales fiestas in the Old Plaza Mayor (1609)

Pages 1-34 | Published online: 29 Apr 2024
 

Correction Statement

This article has been corrected with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.

Notes

1 Quoted in José Muñoz de la Nava Chacón, ‘Los orígenes de la Plaza Mayor de Madrid y su representación por Antonio Mancelli’, in IV Centenario de la Plaza Mayor, ed. Antonio Bonet Correa (Madrid: Instituto de Estudios Madrileños, 2018), 129–80 (p. 151). The surviving copy in the British Library was located by Jesús Escobar, ‘Antonio Manzelli: An Early View of Madrid (c.1623) in the British Library, London’, Anuario del Departamento de Historia y Teoría del Arte, 17 (2005), 33–38.

2 Juan Antonio de la Peña, Relacion de las fiestas reales, y juego de cañas, que la Magestad Católica del Rey nuestro Señor hizo a los veynte y vno de agosto deste presente año, para honrar y festejar los tratados desposorios del sereníssimo Príncipe de Gales, con la Señora Infanta Doña María de Austria (Madrid: Juan González, 1623), f. 1r.

3 Andrés Almansa y Mendoza, A la Villa de Madrid, cabeza del mundo (Madrid: n.p., 1623), ff. 1r and 2v, respectively.

4 Luis Tribaldos de Toledo, ‘Adumbration of the Marketplace Forum, or Mantuan Circus Maximus, Palestra devoted to bullfighting and lance games’, in Epaenesis Iberica (Antwerp: ex officina Plantiniana, 1632), 58. The poem starts: ‘Amphitheatrales qua spectas aduena moles’ (‘Foreigner, these amphithreatrical edifices you behold’) and ends: ‘Non habet huic Circum Iuppiter ipse parem’ (‘Jupiter himself has no circus equal to this one’) (my translations). We must call attention to this convergent, collective endeavour for, as Laura Bass has put it, ‘Madrid’s literati were not just products of the city’s capital status; they were its producers as well, committed to giving it a historical memory and intellectual prestige worthy of its political importance’ (Laura R. Bass & Jean Andrews, ‘ “Me juzgo por natural de Madrid”: Vincencio Carducho, Theorist and Painter of Spain’s Court Capital’, in Imaginary Matters: Realizing the Imagination in Early Modern Iberian Culture, ed. Anne Holloway & Isabel Torres, BSS, XCIII:7–8 (2016), 1301–37 (p. 1305).

5 The imperial symbolism is transparent in Luis Cabrera de Córdoba’s chronicle of the move: ‘Era razón que tan gran Monarquía tuviese ciudad que pudiese hacer el oficio del corazón, que su principado y asiento está en el medio del cuerpo para ministrar igualmente su virtud a la paz y a la guerra a todos los Estados, con el permanente asiento que tiene la Corte Romana, y las de Francia, Inglaterra y Constantinopla’ (Luis Cabrera de Córdoba, Felipe Segundo, Rey de España, 4 vols [Madrid: Aribau, 1876], I, 298).

6 See, for instance: Magdalena de Lapuerta Montoya, La Plaza Mayor de Madrid (16171619) (Madrid: Ayuntamiento de Madrid, 1997); María José del Río Barredo, Madrid, Urbs Regia: la capital ceremonial de la monarquía católica, prólogo de Peter Burke (Madrid: Marcial Pons, 2000); Jesús Escobar, The Plaza Mayor and the Shaping of Baroque Madrid (Cambridge: Cambridge U. P., 2004); Virginia Tovar Martín, ‘La plaza principal de Madrid en el reinado de Felipe II’, in El arte en las cortes de Carlos V y Felipe II. IX Jornadas de Arte (Madrid: CSIC, 1999), 259–68; Manuel Montero Vallejo, ‘De la Laguna a la Plaza Mayor: la Plaza del Arrabal’, Anales del Instituto de Estudios Madrileños, 24 (1987), 203–15; Antonio Bonet Correa, ‘La Plaza Mayor’, in IV Centenario de la Plaza Mayor, ed. Antonio Bonet Correa, 15–30; José Miguel Muñoz de la Nava Chacón, ‘La suntuosa Plaza Mayor de Madrid, Corte de los Reyes Católicos de España, que representó Antonio Mancelli (I)’, Torre de los Lujanes. Boletín de la Real Sociedad Económica Matritense de Amigos del País, 60 (2007), 127–82, and by the same author, ‘La suntuosa Plaza Mayor de Madrid, Corte de los Reyes Católicos de España, que representó Antonio Mancelli (II)’, Torre de los Lujanes. Boletín de la Real Sociedad Económica Matritense de Amigos del País, 61 (2007), 141–90.

7 José Simón Díaz records only one account of a cane-spear game and bullfighting event in the Plaza Mayor (1544) prior to 1609, while such accounts proliferate after the rebuilding of the Plaza (José Simón Díaz, Relaciones breves de actos públicos celebrados en Madrid de 1541 a 1650 [Madrid: Instituto de Estudios Madrileños, 1982], 7–8). Luis Cabrera de Córdoba only lists celebrations in Madrid attended by the king (some of them clearly in the Plaza Mayor) in December 1599, January 1600, September 1606, November 1607 and March 1609 in his Relaciones de las cosas sucedidas en la corte de España, desde 1599 hasta 1614 (Madrid: Imprenta de J. M. Alegría, 1857).

8 Las reales fiestas qve en la Villa de Madrid se hizieron delante sus Magestades, el Rey Don Felipe nuestro Señor, y Reyna doña Margarita de Austria, y los Infantes, y Infanta, que Dios guarde. Año 1610. Hizieronse estas fiestas por los casamientos del Señor Conde de Ampudia hijo del Señor Duque de Cea, con la Señora doña Feliz Colona, hermana del Señor Almirante de Castilla (Sevilla: Gabriel Ramos Bejarano, 1610). I consulted the copy in the Biblioteca Regional de Madrid (A-Caja 1/6). Other copies are held in the Biblioteca del Hospital Real of the Universidad de Granada (BHR/A-031-123 [47]); in the Biblioteca Municipal de Madrid (M-142); and in the Biblioteca de los Herederos del Duque de T’Serclaes (A-Caja 10-732). For the bibliographic description, see Rosario Consuelo Gonzalo García, El legado bibliográfico de Juan Pérez de Guzmán y Boza, duque de T’Serclaes de Tilly: aportaciones a un catálogo descriptivo de ‘Relaciones de sucesos’ (1501–1625) (Madrid: Arco/Libros, 2018), 457–58. On the publisher, Gabriel Ramos Bejarano, see below.

9 Jenaro Alenda y Mira, Relaciones de solemnidades y fiestas públicas de España (Madrid: Etable, 1903), 148.

10 Alenda y Mira included a short bibliographical notice and promised a study, though this was never undertaken (see his Relaciones de solemnidades, 148); Simón Díaz lists the pamphlet under Alenda y Mira, without studying or editing it. The account was included neither in the repertoire of courtly spectacles by Teresa Ferrer Valls, Nobleza y espectáculo teatral (1535–1622): estudio y documentos (Sevilla: UNED, 1993) nor in the recent catalogue of tournaments by Jimena Gamba Corradine, Fiesta caballeresca en el Siglo de Oro: estudio, edición, antología y catálogo (Zaragoza: Institución Fernando el Católico, 2017), 25980.

11 Alfredo Alvar Ezquerra, Madrid, corazón de un imperio: 1561 y 1601–1606 (Madrid: La Librería, 2013), 16389.

12 I take this transnational metaphor for royal patronage from Harry Sieber, ‘The Magnificent Fountain: Literary Patronage in the Court of Philip III’, Cervantes. Bulletin of the Cervantes Society of America, 18:2 (1998), 85116 (p. 95).

13 Fernando Rodríguez de la Flor Adánez, Barroco: representación e ideología en el mundo hispánico, 1580–1680 (Madrid: Cátedra, 2002), 167.

14 The Countship of Ampudia was a title granted by Philip III in 1599 to Francisco Gómez de Sandoval Rojas y Padilla, son of Cristóbal Gómez de Sandoval, Duke of Cea (Lerma’s heir and successor as the king’s favourite, known after 1610 as the Duke of Uceda). Feliz (also Felisa or Felice) Colonna was the daughter of the former Admiral of Castile, Luis Enríquez de Cabrera y Mendoza, and Vittoria Colonna (daughter of Marco Antonio Colonna, the hero of Lepanto), and sister of the current Admiral, Juan Alfonso Enríquez de Cabrera y Colonna (already married to another daughter of Cea, Lerma’s granddaughter).

15 On Lerma, see Antonio Feros, Kingship and Favoritism in the Spain of Philip III: 1598–1621 (Cambridge: Cambridge U. P., 2000); Patrick Williams, The Great Favourite: The Duke of Lerma and the Court and Government of Philip III of Spain, 1598–1621 (Manchester: Manchester U. P., 2010); and Alfredo Alvar Ezquerra, El duque de Lerma: corrupción y desmoralización en la España del siglo XVII (Madrid: Esfera de los Libros, 2010).

16 For the first crisis and Lerma’s (partial) recovery, see Alvar Ezquerra, El duque de Lerma, 251330.

17 The king’s decision to honour certain spectacles with his attendance was an unmistakable gesture in support of the celebration’s organizers and addressees. See Río Barredo, Madrid, Urbs Regia, 13637.

18 See Magdalena S. Sánchez, The Empress, the Queen, and the Nun: Women and Power at the Court of Philip III of Spain (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins U. P., 1998), 45–54.

19 See El duque de Lerma: poder y literatura en el Siglo de Oro, ed. Juan Matas Caballero, José María Micó & Jesús Ponce Cárdenas (Madrid: Centro de Estudios Europa Hispánica, 2011); and Patrick Williams, ‘El duque de Lerma y el nacimiento de la corte barroca en España: Valladolid, verano de 1605’, Studia Historica. Historia Moderna, 31 (2009), 1951.

20 Only counterbalanced by the Second Marquise of Velada, President of the Council of Orders and Lerma’s sole nominally equal in the protocol. See Santiago Martínez Hernández, El Marqués de Velada y la corte en los reinados de Felipe II y Felipe III: nobleza cortesana y cultura política en la España del Siglo de Oro (Valladolid: Junta de Castilla y León, 2004).

21 Felice Colonna.

22 The fiancée's sister-in-law, Luisa de Sandoval y Padilla (?1664), the Duke of Cea’s daughter (and Lerma’s granddaughter) who, although a child, was already engaged to the Admiral (15981648).

23 Mariana de Padilla Manrique y Acuña (?1611), the bridegroom’s mother and Lerma’s daughter-in-law.

24 Francisca de Sandoval y Rojas (?1663), Duchess of Peñaranda, Lerma’s daughter.

25 Catalina de la Cerda y Sandoval (?1648), another of Lerma’s daughters.

26 Catalina de Sandoval, another of Lerma’s relatives, married in 1608 to the First Marquis of Fuentes.

27 Cabrera de Córdoba, Relaciones de las cosas sucedidas en la corte de España, 97.

28 Cabrera de Córdoba, Relaciones de las cosas sucedidas en la corte de España, 387.

29 Cabrera de Córdoba, Relaciones de las cosas sucedidas en la corte de España, 388.

30 Gerónimo Gascón de Torquemada, Gaçeta y nuevas de la corte de España desde el año 1600 en adelante, ed., con intro., de Alonso de Ceballos-Escalera y Gila (Madrid: Real Academia Matritense de Heráldica y Genealogía, 1991), 30.

31 Alvar Ezquerra, El duque de Lerma, 380.

32 Norbert Elias, The Court Society, trans. Edmund Jephcott (New York: Pantheon Books, 1983 [1st German ed. 1969]), 11745.

33 See William Ambler, ‘Court Portraits during the Reign of Philip III of Spain’, in Spanish Royal Patronage, 1412–1804: Portraits As Propaganda, ed. Ilenia Colón Mendoza & Margaret Ann Zaho (Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2018), 3464. Our pamphlet might be the first written document presenting Philip III wearing black, therefore contradicting José Luis Colomer’s assertion that ‘[t]he king, however, had no fondness for the colour his ancestors had chosen for themselves, extending its use around them. Although literary sources confirm that black continued to be worn at the court in the early seventeenth century, they do not refer to Philip III dressing in the same way as his father; on the contrary, he seems to have wished to strike a difference by sporting opposite colours and luxurious details’ (José Luis Colomer, ‘Black and the Royal Image’, in Spanish Fashion at the Courts of Early Modern Europe, ed. José Luis Colomer & Amalia Descalzo, 2 vols [Madrid: Centro de Estudios Europa Hispánica, 2014], I, 77112 [p. 96]).

34 According to the Cumaean Sybil’s prediction in Virgil’s Eclogue IV, linking Jason’s journey and the return of the Golden Age symbolizing the Pax Romana. See Lucas A. Marchante-Aragón, Performing the King Divine: The Early Modern Spanish Aulic Festival (Kassel: Edition Reichenberger, 2017), 6873.

35 According to Cabrera de Córdoba, ‘[e]l día de los Reyes [in the year 1613] por la mañana dio S. M. el tusón al Príncipe […] y preguntó a su padre si tenía alguna obligación de traerle, y diciéndole que no el Confesor que se halló presente, le dijo que aquel cordero significaba Nuestro Señor’ (Relaciones de las cosas sucedidas en la corte de España, 506). Indeed, the new confessor since 1608, proposed by Lerma, wielded a profound influence on the monarch’s spirituality, being one of the main advocates for the expulsion of the Moriscos in 1609.

36 See Ernst H. Kantorowicz, The King’s Two Bodies: A Study in Medieval Political Theology (Princeton: Princeton U. P., 1957). According to Paul Kléber Monod, ‘[i]t assumed not simply the resemblance of the ruler to God, but the existence of a divine presence fully formed within the corporeal body of the ruler, a miracle of incarnation that rivalled Christ’s own double nature’ (The Power of Kings: Monarchy and Religion in Europe, 1589–1715 [New Haven: Yale U. P., 1999], 6364).

37 Some representations, such as Antonio Mancelli’s, show an aedicule with the royal arms on top of the Panadería. Escobar believes that they must have been placed after 1619 (The Plaza Mayor and the Shaping of Baroque Madrid, 13839), or rather in the façade above the royal balcony (‘Antonio Manzelli: An Early View of Madrid’, 34), as other paintings display.

38 Fernando Bouza Álvarez, ‘Cortes festejantes: fiesta y ocio en el cursus honorum cortesano’, Manuscrits. Revista d’Història Moderna, 13 (1995), 185203 (pp. 18788).

39 In 1612, José de Valdivielso published ‘Romance al Santísimo Sacramento, en metáfora de una audiencia que da Su Magestad’, fusing the figures of Christ and king in an allegory both Eucharistic and political: ‘Dixo el Rey: “Comed, amigos, / que vuestro es aqueste pan, / pues a trueco que no os falte, / lo quitaré de mi altar” ’ (José de Valdivielso, Romancero espiritual, ed., intro. & notas de José María Aguirre [Madrid: Espasa-Calpe, 1984], 91).

40 Feros, Kingship and Favoritism, 85.

41 Antonio Feros, ‘Vicedioses, pero humanos: el drama del Rey’, Cuadernos de Historia Moderna, 14 (1993), 10332 (p. 103).

42 Escobar, The Plaza Mayor and the Shaping of Baroque Madrid, 90–92.

43 Muñoz de la Nava-Chacón, ‘La suntuosa Plaza Mayor’, 153–54.

44 Alvar Ezquerra, Madrid, corazón de un imperio, 178–88; and Río Barredo, Madrid, Urbs Regia, 141–43.

45 Besides accepting his honorary naming as regidor perpetuo of Madrid (Cabrera de Córdoba, Relaciones de las cosas sucedidas en la corte de España, 145), Lerma used some of his protégés as middlemen (Alvar Ezquerra, Madrid, corazón de un imperio, 178–83).

46 Muñoz de la Nava-Chacón, ‘La suntuosa Plaza Mayor’, 134–36.

47 This is not to say that the symbolic value of the Plaza Mayor was claimed exclusively by the royal court; in fact, in March 1609, contrary to our case, a squad represented the Villa in a bullfighting and cane-spear game organized by the city council—with the attendance of the kings (Cabrera de Córdoba, Relaciones de las cosas sucedidas en la corte de España, 363).

48 José Antonio Maravall, Culture of the Baroque: Analysis of a Historical Structure, trans. Terry Cochran, foreword by Wlad Godzich & Nicholas Spadaccini (Manchester: Manchester U. P., 1986 1st Spanish ed. 1975), 104–05.

49 In an entry dated January 1609, Cabrera de Córdoba wrote: ‘También se da orden que todas las delanteras de las casas que caen a la Plaza Mayor, sean de nueva traza como está hecha la Panadería, para que estén mas lucidas; y asimismo que se derribe y añada lo que fuere menester para hacerla cuadrada’ (Cabrera de Córdoba, Relaciones de las cosas sucedidas en la corte de España, 359).

50 Escobar, The Plaza Mayor and the Shaping of Baroque Madrid, 106 & 192–202. Stephanie Merrim quotes Article 113 of the 1573 Indies’ ordinances, saying that ‘the main plaza “shall be rectangular […] because this shape is best for festivals with horses, or for any others that might be held” ’ (The Spectacular City, Mexico, and Colonial Hispanic Literary Culture [Austin: Univ. of Texas Press, 2011], 23).

51 Although Miguel Molina Campuzano (Madrid: los siglos sin plano. Estudios que, atestiguado en acta municipal de 6 de septiembre de 1629 el inicio del alzado de la cerca de Felipe IV, retrofieren en el pasado material de la vila, 2 vols [Madrid: Fundación Caja Madrid, 2004 (1st ed. 1960)], I, 53–55) rejected previous scholars’ identification of the ‘de Witt’ map with the one commissioned to Mancelli (supposedly lost), José Miguel Muñoz de la Nava-Chacón (‘Antonio Mancelli: corógrafo, iluminador, pintor y mercader de libros en el Madrid de Cervantes [I]’, Torre de los Lujanes. Boletín de la Real Sociedad Económica Matritense de Amigos del País, 57 [2005)], 45–84), has convincingly proved such identification (also in his ‘La suntuosa Plaza Mayor’ and ‘Los orígenes de la Plaza Mayor’).

52 Muñoz de la Nava-Chacón, ‘Antonio Mancelli: corógrafo, iluminador’, 68.

53 Gil González Dávila, Teatro de las grandezas de la Villa de Madrid (Madrid: Thomas Iunti, 1623), 12.

54 The corregidor (chief delegate of the king for the city), Gonzalo Manuel, was a protégé of Lerma (Alvar Ezquerra, El duque de Lerma, 320); the captain of the ‘Tudesca’ Guard since 1608, was Francisco Calderón, identified here as the father of Rodrigo Calderón, the influential favourite’s favourite; Fernando Verdugo, lieutenant to the Marquis of Camarasa, Captain of the Spanish Guard; and Bernardino Fernández de Velasco, Count of Salazar, who later that day participated as a second to the maintainer, the Duke of Feria.

55 For Tundidores, see Lapuerta Montoya, La Plaza Mayor de Madrid (1617–1619), 106. The Sardeneta houses were so called since they belonged to Francisco, son of San Juan de Sardeneta, a former alderman and treasurer for previous Plaza reforms (La Plaza Mayor de Madrid [1617–1619], 34–35).

56 See Roy Strong, Art and Power: Renaissance Festivals, 14501650 (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1984), 50–57; and Gamba Corradine, Fiesta caballeresca en el Siglo de Oro, 38–50.

57 Pedro M. Cátedra, Jardín de amor: torneo de invención del siglo XVI. Ahora nuevamente publicado con motivo del IV Centenario del ‘Quijote’ (1605–2005) (Salamanca: Semyr/Mundus Libri, 2005), 101–02.

58 Gamba Corradine, Fiesta caballeresca en el Siglo de Oro, 127–33.

59 Strong, Art and Power, 11–16.

60 Fernando Bouza Álvarez, Palabra, imagen y mirada en la corte del Siglo de Oro: historia cultural de las prácticas orales y visuales de la nobleza (Madrid: Abada, 2020), 185–206.

61 Río Barredo, Madrid, Urbs Regia, 152–57.

62 Santiago Martínez Hernández, ‘Fragmentos del ocio “nobiliario”: “festejar” en la cultura cortesana’, in Dramaturgia festiva y cultura nobiliaria en el Siglo de Oro, ed. Bernardo José García García & María Luisa Lobato (Madrid: Iberoamericana/Frankfurt am Main: Vervuert, 2007), 45–88 (p. 58).

63 For instance, in a 1623 cane-spear game, knights were assigned to the squadrons ‘como les cupo en suerte, que como entre tan grandes Principes, para evitar mayorias fue muy prudente acuerdo’, de la Peña, Relacion de las fiestas reales, y juego de cañas, 2r.

64 As described in Las reales fiestas qve en la Villa de Madrid se hizieron, 1v: ‘y tirauan della diez y seys cauallos bla[n]cos con vunos picos en las frentes en forma de Vnicornios’.

65 See the collective volume “All the World’s a Stage … ”: Art and Pageantry in the Renaissance and Baroque, ed. Barbara Wisch & Susan Scott Munshower, 2 vols (University Park: Pennsylvania State U. P., 1990), I, Triumphal Celebrations and the Rituals of Statecraft.

66 Roy Strong, Splendor at Court: Renaissance Spectacle and the Theater of Power (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1973), 31 & 36.

67 We recall here Petrarch’s Sonnet 10 to Giacomo Colonna: ‘Glorïosa columna in cui s’appoggia / nostra speranza e’l gran nome latino’ (Francesco Petrarca, Cancionero, preliminares, trad. & notas de Jacobo Cortines, texto italiano establecido por Cianfranco Contini, estudio introductorio de Nicholas Maun, 2 vols [Madrid: Cátedra, 1989], I, 148).

68 Feros, Kingship and Favoritism, 189–206; Paul C. Allen, Philip III and the Pax Hispanica, 1598–1621: The Failure of Grand Strategy (New Haven: Yale U. P., 2000), 23233. The criticism focused on humiliated honour and the fear that Protestantism would come to dominate over Catholicism.

69 Allen, Philip III and the Pax Hispanica, 234.

70 See Daniel Gil-Benumeya, Madrid islámico (Madrid: La Librería, 2015), 17785. Juan López de Hoyos even said that, ‘conforme a esto tiene Madrid mayor nobleza de antigüedad que Roma’ (quoted in Ramón de Mesonero Romanos, El antiguo Madrid: paseos histórico-anecdóticos por las calles y casas de esta villa [Madrid: Establecimiento Tipográfico de Don F. de P. Mellado, 1861], 232).

71 The general ban was signed in secret in April 1609, and publicly announced in October. See Francisco J. Moreno Díaz del Campo, ‘Algo más sobre los moriscos de Madrid’, Tiempos Modernos. Revista Electrónica de Historia Moderna, I, 8:34 (2017), 31546, http://www.tiemposmodernos.org/tm3/index.php/tm/article/view/2069/698 (accessed 5 April 2024).

72 The decree has been understood as a concession to Lerma’s opponents to mitigate the criticism for the truce with the Flemish, who were deemed heretics, while at the same time astutely presenting Lerma and Philip III as champions of Catholicism providentially deactivating the fifth column of Islam on the Peninsula. See Feros, Kingship and Favoritism, 204.

73 ‘[D]uque de Feria, que por sus bordados y gordura se pudo solemnizar y celebrar por feria duplex’ (Simón Díaz, Relaciones breves de actos públicos, 50).

74 See the royal directions in Elena Fasano Guarini & Silvano Giordano, Istruzioni di Filippo III ai suoi ambasciatori a Roma, 1598–1621 (Roma: Dipartimento per i Beni Archivistici e Librari, 2006), lxxii–lxxiii.

75 Simone Tavolacci, La solenne entrata fatta dal sig. D. Gomez Suares de Figueroa, Duca di Feria, & Marchese di Viglialba, in Roma alli 13. di Maggio. 1607. Con la caualcata di S.E. al Concistorio publico alli 15. dell’istesso Mese (Roma: Lepido Faci, 1607).

76 Reproduced in Francisco Croche de Acuña, ‘Las gestas de la casa ducal de Feria en los versos del poeta zafrense Cristóbal de Mesa’, Revista de Estudios Extremeños, 57:2 (2001), 617–46 (pp. 637–38).

77 Only its bibliographical reference remains in Tamayo de Vargas’ manuscript list of books printed in Madrid, Junta de libros (c.1624): Estanzas a la sortija que en la plaza de Madrid mantuvo el Duque de Feria, Marqués de Villalva, de Juan de Lago (Madrid: L. Sánchez, 1609). See Alenda y Mira, Relaciones de solemnidades, 148.

78 López de Hoyos coined the famous Villa’s motto after that legend: ‘Fui sobre agua edificada, / mis muros de fuego son: / esta es mi insignia y blasón’. See Pedro Montoliú Camps, Madrid, villa y corte: historia de una ciudad (España: Sílex, 1996), 26–28.

79 Rafael Castillo Bejarano, ‘Humanos serafines: la intercesión en la gracia regia de las damas de Palacio desde Góngora a los poetas cortesanos’, Atalanta. Revista de las Letras Barrocas, 6:2 (2018), 41–81 (pp. 52–58).

80 Castillo Bejarano, ‘Humanos serafines’, 66–70.

81 Sieber, ‘The Magnificent Fountain’, 101–07.

82 Joining this party was the Count of Mayalde—better known as the Prince of Esquilache—and his brother the Comendador of Montesa, close relatives of the Sandoval family; and Antonio [Hurtado] de Mendoza, Saldaña’s page and well-known poet and playwright, later secretary to Philip IV.

83 A well-known Flemish dwarf, here referred to as Monamí, in the service of Prince Philip (Cabrera de Córdoba, Relaciones de las cosas sucedidasen la corte de España, 547).

84 See John H. Elliott, The Count-Duke of Olivares: The Statesman in an Age of Decline (New Haven: Yale U. P., 1986).

85 See Emilio Cotarelo y Mori, El Conde de Villamediana: estudio biográfico-crítico, con varias poesías inéditas del mismo (Madrid: Visor Libros, 2003 [1st ed. 1886]); and Luis Rosales, Pasión y muerte del conde de Villamediana (Madrid: Gredos, 1969).

86 According to Santiago Martínez Hernández, ‘fue Lerma el maestro que sirvió de ejemplo a Olivares, pues supo aprovechar con maestría la baza festiva para ganarse el favor del entonces heredero al trono’ (‘Cultura festiva y poder en la monarquía hispánica y su mundo: convergencias historiográficas y perspectivas de análisis’, Studia Historica. Historia Moderna, 31 [2009], 127–52 [p. 132]).

87 Rosales, Pasión y muerte del conde de Villamediana, 182–232.

88 Rosales, Pasión y muerte del conde de Villamediana, 247.

89 For instance, see Tomé Pinheiro da Veiga, Fastiginia ó Fastos Geniales, trad. Narciso Alonso Cortés, prólogo de José Pereira de Sampaio (Valladolid: Colegio de Santiago, 1916), 45.

90 Elliott, The Count-Duke of Olivares, 7.

91 Relación verdadera sacada de un original muy fidedigno de las fiestas que se han hecho en Nápoles a 15 de mayo deste presente año para celebrar el casamiento de la Majestad del Rey de Francia con La Infanta nuestra Señora (Barcelona: s.n., 1612), f. 2r.

92 Río Barredo, Madrid, Urbs Regia, 157–71. For the ceremonial enlargement of Madrid by Olivares during Philip IV’s reign, see Jonathan Brown & John H. Elliott, A Palace for a King: The Buen Retiro and the Court of Philip IV (New Haven: Yale U. P., 1980).

93 ‘Este carro fue motiuo, para que despues dixesse vn curioso y desengañado de la corte hablando con los della, esta dezima’, (Las reales fiestas qve en la Villa de Madrid se hizieron, f. 2r).

94 Elliott, The Count-Duke of Olivares, 19–22.

95 Eduardo Peñalver Gómez, ‘La imprenta en Sevilla en el siglo XVII’, Doctoral dissertation, 3 vols (Universidad de Sevilla, 2019), I, 347–65.

96 Brown & Elliott, A Palace for a King, 42–44.

97 It might also refer to the character of Diana in the sixteenth-century bestseller Los siete libros de Diana (Valencia: Pedro Patricio Mey, 1559), by Portuguese author Jorge de Montemayor, and the work’s endless sequels and imitations that helped shape the fiction and language of gallantry.

98 For the first Duke of Pastrana, see James M. Boyden, The Courtier and the King: Ruy Gómez de Silva, Philip II, and the Court of Spain (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1995).

99 Willard F. King, Prosa novelística y academias literarias en el siglo XVII (Madrid: Real Academia Española, 1963), 47–48. On the other hand, these ‘savages’ once again refer to the pastoral novel La Diana, in which three savages attempt to kidnap some nymphs (Jorge de Montemayor, La Diana, ed. Juan Montero [Barcelona: Crítica, 1996], 91–96).

100 See Rafael Castillo Bejarano, ‘ “Doña Catalina de la Cerda, que es tan hermosa como las demás son feas:” cénit y ocaso de una dama de Palacio singular’, Janus. Estudios sobre el Siglo de Oro, 9 (2020), 402–42 (pp. 423–26).

101 Cabrera de Córdoba, Relaciones de las cosas sucedidas en la corte de España, 290.

102 ‘Luego ocho camellos, y sobre estos las siete marauillas, y el Escurial por la octaua; o el Templo de S. Lorenço el Real, formadas de lienço y pintadas yuan bamboleando al passo tardo de los animales que estentian los pesquezos’ (2r).

103 Jesús Sáenz de Miera, De obra ‘insigne’ y ‘heroica’ a ‘octava maravilla del mundo’: la fama de El Escorial en el siglo XVI (Madrid: Sociedad Estatal para la Conmemoración de los Centenarios de Felipe II y Carlos V, 2001), 319–54.

104 Alvar Ezquerra, Madrid, corazón de un imperio, 63.

105 Escobar, The Plaza Mayor and the Shaping of Baroque Madrid, 21–24. Bonet Correa also adduces the ‘espíritu herreriano’ inscribed in the Plaza, ‘La Plaza Mayor’ (‘La Plaza Mayor], 16).

106 ‘Encomium of the triply maximum temple consecrated to the divine Lawrence in the Escorial’ (Tribaldos de Toledo, Epaenesis Iberica, 57–58).

107 As Norbert Elias explained for Louis XIV’s court, the ‘Maison du Roi’, or royal palace, is the centre from which the kingdom unfolds in concentric circles; only the extended family of titled nobility is granted access to palatial celebrations (The Court Society, trans. Jephcott, pp. 45–72).

108 For the creation of Seville’s Roman image during the Renaissance, see Vicente Lleó Cañal, Nueva Roma: mitología y humanismo en el Renacimiento sevillano (Madrid: Centro de Estudios Europa Hispánica, 2012), 217.

109 ‘The opening decades of the seventeenth century, therefore, were a time of building and urban expansion in Madrid, as they were in London and Paris. But construction in the capital of Spain, unlike the capitals of England and France, began almost from nothing’ (Brown & Elliott, A Palace for a King, 3).

* Disclosure Statement: No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

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