“The best way to get to know a student is to know their community”: fostering pre-service teachers’ critical multilingual language awareness through linguistic community walks

ABSTRACT

This study sought to investigate the impact of an English as a second language methodology course in which we asked pre-service teachers (PSTs) to visit the communities served by their field placement schools for their mentored teaching practices in a linguistic community walk project. We aimed to understand the impact of a linguistic community walk project on PSTs’ understanding of the existing disparities in access to community resources for people from different linguistic backgrounds, and how this experience impacts their pedagogical orientations to support the teaching and learning of emergent multilingual learners. Drawing on the theory of critical multilingual language awareness, we observed the impact of the linguistic community walk project on PSTs’ language ideologies and envisioned pedagogy. Findings suggest that PSTs’ involvement in the project heightened their awareness of the importance of utilization of authentic and culturally relevant materials and resources in their classrooms. Additionally, the project helped PSTs move away from monolingual ideologies by critically reflecting on the marginalization of minoritized communities in community spaces, indicating a wider potential of the approach for teacher education programs.

KEYWORDS:

• Critical multilingual language awareness
• emergent multilingual learners
• teacher education
• community-based field experiences
• pre-service teachers

Introduction

With increasing diversity in the US schools (National Center for Educational Statistics NCES, 2023), teacher preparation programs across the nation are in dire need of innovative approaches to teaching and learning to provide equitable learning opportunities for all learners. Teachers are expected to teach a diverse student population, and teacher educators need to prepare future teachers to understand, critically analyze, comprehend, and challenge inequities in school settings (Nieto, 2000; Souto-Manning & Martell, 2019). However, mainstream teacher preparation programs have not paid enough attention to preparing teacher candidates to engage in a “multilingually oriented approach” to teach emergent multilingual learners (EMLs) (de Jong & Gao, 2023, p. 473). Given this reality, scholars (e.g., Valdés, 2022) have discussed the imperative for teachers and teacher educators to take on an agentive role in achieving equity and excellence in education for diverse communities by encouraging emancipatory practices that honor students’ cultural and linguistic practices. Highlighting the need to prepare pre-service teachers to respond to the needs of diverse communities, Zeichner et al. (2016) state:

Given the demographic profile of teachers and of the students who attend public schools, the big challenge before teacher educators is to learn how to better prepare and support teachers who are committed to the families and communities of their students as they go in to teach “other people’s children” in communities that are often unfamiliar to their own life experiences (p. 288).

Recent scholarship on teacher education has also highlighted the need for teacher education curricula to be grounded in family and community knowledge through various forms of community engagement (Richmond et al., 2020) to prepare teachers that can design linguistically and culturally responsive teaching (Lucas & Villegas, 2013). The present study extends this conversation by focusing on pre-service teachers’ (PSTs) development of Critical Multilingual Language awareness (CMLA) through community-based experiences in the form of a community walk project (Heiman et al., 2021). Building on the previous scholarship on community-engagement and critical pre-service teacher education, we examined the impact of a linguistic community walk project in developing CMLA of the PSTs pursuing an English as a Second Language (ESL) endorsement at a large teacher preparation program in the US as they interacted and reflected on the linguistic landscapes in the communities surrounding the schools they were placed for mentored teaching practice. More specifically, we answer the following research questions through this study:

1. How does engaging PSTs in a linguistic community walk project influence their understanding of the existing disparities in access to community resources for people from different linguistic backgrounds?

2. How does this experience impact their pedagogical orientations to support the teaching and learning of EMLs.

Theoretical framework: critical multilingual language awareness

We situate our study within the framework of critical multilingual language awareness (García, 2017), which aligns with the scholarship that promotes critical approaches to education such as critical pedagogy (Freire, 1970/2006). This theoretical approach also helps us gain insights into the pedagogical orientations of PSTs as they envision their own teaching in classrooms with students from diverse linguistic backgrounds.

A fundamental aspect of critical scholars in language education is the deconstruction of hegemonic perspectives such as monolingual ideologies (i.e., English-only ideologies in the US context) and the analysis of language usage from a multilingual standpoint that acknowledges hybrid language practices of multilingual people (García, 2009). This approach challenges the privileging of monolingual perspectives, by positioning multilingualism as the norm and adopting an innovative perspective for viewing and analyzing students’ linguistic assets through a multilingual lens. Scholars supporting this approach to multilingualism also advocate for dynamic linguistic practices and the recognition of diverse linguistic identities (Flores & Rosa, 2015). To achieve dynamic languaging and awareness of linguistic diversity in classrooms, teachers need to challenge the persistent dominant language ideologies as changes in teachers’ attitudes toward minoritized language practices hold the potential to transform their instructional practices (Flores, Lewis, & Phuong, 2018; García, 2009). This is possible when teachers have critical awareness of the existing power dynamics and linguistic hierarchies created as a result of socio-economic power exercised by different groups of people (García, 2017).

Such critical language awareness (Fairclough, 1992), which developed from the earlier concept of language awareness (Bolitho & Tomlinson, 1980), invites minoritized students to engage in a more socially just language education, creating spaces for them to critically analyze and challenge the perpetuation of raciolinguistic ideologies, described as the ways in which individuals get racialized as having linguistic deficiencies (Alim, 2005, Flores & Rosa, 2015). Fairclough’s (1992) concept of critical language awareness sheds light on the idea that power relations and ideological processes are embedded within language conventions and practices, which individuals may not always recognize. Critical scholars have discussed how raciolinguistic ideologies shape the ways dominant groups (e.g., while English speakers of European descent living in the US) look at the language practices of the people from marginalized communities, including brown, black and Native American people, from deficit perspectives (Bale et al., 2023; Flores & Rosa, 2015). Recent scholarship has also focused on examination of raciolinguistic ideologies and CMLA in teacher preparation programs (Deroo & Ponzio, 2023: Fallas-Escobar & Deroo, 2023; Mahalingappa et al., 2022)

In response to the increasing number of multilingual individuals and the necessity for greater acceptance of multilingual people, García (2017) advocated for the development of CMLA. García’s notion of CMLA calls for recognition of language as socially constructed and, therefore, subject to change, with the aim of providing equitable education and empowering all students to express their voices. The recognition of language as a socially constructed phenomenon influenced by interactions necessitates an exploration of its shaping within broader sociopolitical and educational contexts, with a particular emphasis on promoting equitable education and empowering student voices (Douglas Fir Group, 2016; Hornberger & Hult, 2008; Prasad & Lory, 2020). Consequently, CMLA calls for teachers to be aware of societal issues to be able to empower their students to confront prevailing linguistic hierarchies, biases, and inequalities and all other forms of deficit perspectives (Valencia, 2010) in multilingual educational settings.

It is worth noting that several theories and frameworks developed in recent decades share similar perspectives such as “multilingual socialization in education” (Meier, 2018), “translanguaging” (García & Wei, 2014; Wei, 2018), and “linguistically responsive pedagogy” (Lucas, & Villegas, 2013). While these frameworks center around the common goal of enhancing multilingual awareness and evolving language teaching beliefs, each brings its own unique focus to the table. For example, Meier’s (2018) notion of multilingual socialization in education focuses on how individuals and their agencies engage with social perceptions of languages in educational contexts. Relatedly, translanguaging pedagogy (García & Wei, 2014; Wei, 2018) emphasizes the role of teachers in encouraging students to engage in meaning-making practices by utilizing their complete linguistic repertoire, while also fostering respect for the linguistic variation individuals bring into the classroom. Lucas and Villegas (2013), through their notion of linguistically responsive pedagogy, place high value on linguistic diversity within and beyond the classroom and call for teachers to provide meaningful learning opportunities, challenge biased assumptions, and underscore classroom strategies and practices designed to support multilingual students. As mentioned, these frameworks all share a commitment to valuing linguistic diversity in education and contribute to our understanding of CMLA as an approach that transcends instructional and pedagogical strategies to support the students from linguistically and culturally diverse communities. In this paper, we have adopted the CMLA as our theoretical framework as it includes a broader emphasis on teachers’ understanding of the social, political, and economic contexts surrounding individuals who use multiple languages (García, 2017).

Cultivating teachers’ CMLA in teacher preparation programs

Pedagogical approaches adopted in classrooms by teachers play a crucial role in shaping students’ academic, linguistic, and social development (Henderson & Ingram, 2018). The extent to which teachers demonstrate awareness and acceptance of utilizing multiple languages as valuable assets significantly influences their capacity to establish a classroom environment conducive to fostering language connections (Cummins, 2007; García, 2009). However, many teacher preparation programs in US universities currently train PSTs under the assumption that their future students will all speak the same dominant language (i.e., English). As a result, there is a shortage of curricula that adequately address the multilingual differences among students (García, 2017; King & Butler, 2015; Roy-Campbell, 2013). For instance, Pettit’s (2011) review showed that PSTs had inadequate knowledge about linguistic diversity and language learners. Their feelings of being underprepared during their teacher preparation programs to teach multilingual learners hindered their classroom practices and the implementation of equitable practices.

Similar findings were reported in a recent study conducted by Deng, Kiramba, and Viesca (2021) when they examined the perceived preparedness of general education teachers working with multilingual learners in public schools in their first year of teaching. In addition, Mills et al.’s (2020) review of research showed that “major gaps” exists in the approaches adopted by to teacher education programs to prepare PSTs for linguistically diverse classrooms. These studies suggest that merely equipping future teachers with language and literacy skills and knowledge is insufficient for effectively instructing students from diverse linguistic backgrounds. To address these challenges, there is now a renewed demand for teacher preparation programs to discover innovative approaches that foster multilingual awareness, especially in multilingual schools and communities (Mills et al., 2020; Zhang-Wu, 2021).

Scholars have also highlighted the importance of understanding the linguistic and cultural backgrounds of the students to make curricular and pedagogical decisions that serve them the best. Ladson-Billings’s (1995, 2021) call for culturally relevant pedagogy, Paris and Alim’s (2014) idea of culturally sustaining pedagogy, and Gay’s (2000) notion of culturally responsive teaching have contributed greatly to push the field of education and teacher education to address the unique needs and challenges of students belonging to marginalized communities. Based on these frameworks, several studies (e.g., Coady, Harper, & De Jong, 2011, Barros et al., 2021; Troyan et al., 2021) have documented the success and challenges of preparing PSTs for linguistically responsive teaching (Lucas et al. 2008) to meet the diverse linguistic needs of EMLs. Concurrently, there is a push for inclusion of asset-based pedagogy in teacher preparation programs (Lucas et al., 2014; de Jong & Gao, 2023) to prepare all future teachers to be able to serve students from diverse backgrounds.

Ladson-Billings (2006) discusses the importance of providing PSTs with the opportunity to engage and interact with children and adolescents in out-of-school contexts, such as community and neighborhood centers, to help them understand the culture of the community. Highlighting the importance of community engagement in teacher preparation program, Ladson-Billings (2006) argues, “If we are serious about [PSTs] … learning about culture, we need to help them first become careful observers of culture, both in the communities in which they will teach and in themselves” (p. 109). This is similar to Moll et al.’s (1992) concept of funds of knowledge which emphasizes the need for teachers to work with students, their families and communities as ethnographers to make sense of their lives to be able to support their personal and academic success. Sleeter (2001) has discussed the need for “community-based cross-cultural immersion” of PSTs to help them “develop the attitudes and multicultural knowledge base” of PSTs belonging to the dominant group.

The origin of innovative strategies to prepare teachers with CMLA can be traced back to the end of the twentieth century when Haberman (1996) discussed the importance of recruiting prospective teachers from culturally diverse backgrounds and selecting candidates who possess the necessary competencies to effectively teach in culturally diverse contexts, regardless of their racial status. Another innovative strategy to prepare teachers for linguistically and culturally diverse learners involves community-based immersion experiences for PSTs to develop culturally and linguistically responsive teachers (Guillen & Zeichner, 2018; Stachowski & Mahan, 1998; Sleeter, 2001, Zeichner et al., 2016). These community-based approaches are growing popular in teacher preparation programs with an aim to address the increasing complexity and multilingual needs of students. Zhang-Wu’s (2021) study found that pre-service monolingual teachers who were engaged in field trips to bi/multilingual communities reflected gaining a deeper understanding of the challenges encountered by EMLs and the enduring social biases present in educational settings. These learning opportunities in the community enhance PSTs’ awareness of their own language ideologies and practices which can resist or perpetuate uneven power dynamics inherent in their actions as they make pedagogical decisions (García, 2008).

In a recent study, Fallas-Escobar and Deroo (2023) conceptualized raciolinguistic landscapes as spaces where language, race, and geography intersect to influence the rights and experiences of individuals from racialized backgrounds. Engaging PSTs in activities fostering geo-spatial awareness in urban and rural borderland areas along the US–Mexico border, the authors found that participants developed heightened sociopolitical consciousness critically reflecting on local Spanish and English signs symbols. Their work emphasizes the contrast with sites where whiteness and English are perceived as the norm. Simultaneously, Deroo and Ponzio (2023) explored PSTs’ meaning-making process related to language, identity, and power through in-classroom multimodal activities. Their findings demonstrated that PSTs exhibited varying levels of awareness regarding the impact of language practices on acceptance, belonging, and educational access. Additionally, Lindahl et al. (2021) focused on enhancing PSTs’ language awareness and facilitating linguistically responsive instruction utilizing activities such as language portraits, ideology trees, and utterance analysis. As a result, PSTs developed a pluralistic perspective on language practices and increased sociolinguistic consciousness of the PSTs. These studies collectively contribute valuable insights into the complex dynamics of language, race, and education.

Our review of studies focusing on CMLA in teacher education suggests that the cultivation and enhancement of PSTs’ CMLA can be achieved through the inclusion of creative ways to engage them in teacher preparation programs. Besides, linguistic community walk discussed in this paper, there are several approaches to preparing critical teachers for linguistically and culturally diverse students documented in recent studies such as arts-based approaches to prepare PSTs for EMLs (Pauly et al., 2019) and art-museum visits to makes PSTs aware of multilingual and multimodal ways of communication (Cárdenas Curiel et al., 2023; Deroo, 2022; Rodríguez et al., 2022), community and place-based approaches to teacher preparation (Guillen & Zeichner, 2018; Mendoza, 2017; Thacker & Bodle, 2022; Zeichner et al., 2016), identity-oriented critical autoethnographic approach (Yazan, 2019). These studies also suggest that such activities should not only promote inclusive language practices but also address the diversity of languages in the communities where PSTs might potentially serve as teachers after graduation. It is important to note that CMLA in education goes beyond achieving high proficiency in multiple languages and instead focuses on fostering an open mind-set toward linguistic and cultural diversity (García, 2017). Therefore, it is crucial to encourage PSTs to recognize the assets of students in various educational settings, including local communities (Zeichner et al., 2016).

Linguistic community walks in teacher preparation programs

Previous studies have pointed out the benefits of neighborhood community walks in teacher preparation programs for engagement and solidarity toward families from diverse and marginalized communities. The concept of linguistic landscapes (Cenoz & Gorter, 2006) is useful in developing CMLA in teacher preparation programs as PSTs can get valuable insights by engaging with local communities and linguistic resources available to people from marginalized backgrounds (Andrade et al., 2023). Engaging PSTs in the study of the local linguistic landscape can enhance PSTs’ understanding of the importance of multilingual representations and visibility of multiple languages in community spaces and recognize linguistic diversity (Hélot et al., 2012). Encouraging PSTs to engage with their local communities while focusing on linguistic elements provides them with valuable opportunities for critical reflection on language use (Van Gorp et al. 2023). Discussing the benefits of including linguistic landscape in teacher education, Hélot et al. (2012) state that it:

can be used as a means to understand power relationships between languages and literacies within society and to drive the attention of teachers who will necessarily operate in multilingual and multicultural schools not only to the material world of signs but also to the symbolic meaning communicated by them (p. 22).

Previous studies have documented positive impacts of engaging PSTs in the study of community linguistic landscape on their development as critical teachers. Zeichner et al. (2016) study introduced neighborhood walks as part of their community-based teacher preparation courses. These walks were led by community members to identify assets in the community (e.g., community centers, gardens, libraries) that could be useful resources for their future pedagogy. In another study, Heiman et al. (2021) found community walks useful in solidifying concretely an abstract perception of funds of knowledge (Moll et al., 1992).

We enhance prior studies by observing PSTs’ reflections on a linguistic community walk project and their linguistic awareness, achieved through a critical examination of their own linguistic ideologies. Subsequently, our attention shifts toward the assets of families and communities, specifically the cultural and linguistic funds of knowledge. These valuable resources are frequently obscured by deeply rooted deficit ideologies, exemplified by language deficit orientations stemming from the intersection of language and ethnoracial identities. We envisioned linguistic community walks that involve considering the linguistic landscape of its community members. Furthermore, we designed this community field experience as a linguistic community walk that engaged PSTs in reflecting on practices and opportunities that solidifies equitable language and cultural practices in their pedagogy.

Zeichner et al. (2016) proposed a typology for understanding community-based teacher education that involves “teacher-family-community (1) involvement, (2) engagement, and (3) solidarity” (p. 278). The authors described their typology first in interaction, second in understanding families and communities’ funds of knowledge, and third in understanding educational inequities as part of society’s structural inequality . In this paper, we envision the goal of community-based field experiences through a CMLA approach. We observe a community field experience that not only involves a critical lens on community member’s interactions, community and familial funds of knowledge, and inequities in schooling and beyond but also contemplates the linguistic assets that individuals bring into a community when interacting in different spaces, and the ways linguistic discrimination creates linguistic inequities in schooling, the local community, and overall society. Thus, the main objective of our “community walk” assignment is to encourage PSTs to observe and critically analyze language practices of community members, in particular, multilingual families, children, and youth through a community walk. In this project, we envisioned PSTs to introduce linguistic funds of knowledge and notice and fight against linguistic inequities that will eventually lead to the building of classroom spaces in solidarity with EMLs.

Methodology

The present study is a result of our collective motivation and commitment to improve our practices as teacher educators and, thus, follows the tradition of self-study of teacher education practices (S-STEP, Loughran, 2005; Peercy & Sharkey, 2020). Guided by a reflexive approach to teacher education (Peercy et al., 2019), we understand that self-study “requires a critical self-reflexivity whereby teacher educators acknowledge their role in teacher learning (facilitating and/or impeding it) and the larger project of teacher education, while also opening their practice to public scrutiny and debate” (Peercy & Sharkey, 2020, p. 106). We also realize that as teacher educators working with PSTs, we can play an important role “in shaping the purpose, philosophy and approach to teaching that will challenge their student teachers’ (Loughran, 1997, p. 9).

While following the S-STEP approach, we also draw on the principles of case study (Stake, 1995) as we situate the study in the specific contexts and participants that make this study unique. Blending S-STEP and case study allowed us to reflect on our own curricular practices as teacher educators and present the unique context where the PSTs explore the linguistic landscape of the community in which they worked as part of their field placement to learn to become teachers in the future. As mentioned, the purpose of this study was to examine the impacts of engaging PSTs in observing, interacting and reflecting upon the linguistic landscape of the communities around elementary and secondary schools assigned for field study, with a focus on how this experience influenced their pedagogical orientations as they envision themselves as teachers of EMLs in the future.

Context and participants

The ESL endorsement practicum was a 16-week-long seminar course offered at a large research university in the US Midwest. PSTs enrolled in this course sought endorsement to get certified to become ESL coordinators/teachers or teach multilingual learners in their mainstream elementary and secondary classrooms. The course included final-year students who were pursuing a major in either elementary education or secondary education and a minor in Teaching English as a Second Language. Before enrolling in this course, students had to complete prerequisite courses, including Introduction to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, and Social Foundations of Justice and Equity in Education. The students entered the course with a broader understanding of issues of diversity and social justice. However, most of the students (except those majoring English Language Arts) enrolled in the course did not have experience taking a course that explicitly focused on issues of language in education. Most of the theoretical and pedagogical constructs (such as language, power and equity for EMLs, translanguaging, educational policies for EMLs) discussed in this course were new for the students as they envisioned education for EMLs in their future classrooms. These constructs were introduced to support PSTs’ development of teachers with critical awareness of the socio-historical context of the communities they were serving or might potentially serve in the future. Our premise was that discussion of these concepts would support the development of CMLA in students while they were actually engaged in the act of a community walk.

As stated in the course syllabus, the objectives of the course were to assist PSTs to “understand the needs of emergent bi/multilingual students learning English and their families, and design pathways for their full participation in the school community.” The course encompassed various components, including a 30-hours field placement practicum, required readings, audio and visual materials focused on ESL research, language and education, weekly reflections on assigned readings, and three major projects throughout the semester (see Table 1 for course goal, content, and major assignments). The required textbooks for the course were Barbian (2017) and García et al.(2017), together with several other articles, book chapters, videos and podcasts to give the PSTs a variety of resources.

Table 1. Course goal, content, and major assignments.

Course Goal	Understand the unique language needs of EMLs to design instructional and assessment strategies to support them to facilitate their entry into school
Core Course Content	Understanding EMLs; Language, power, and equity for education of EMLs; Funds of Knowledge, backward design; Translanguaging pedagogy; Scaffolding; Equitable assessment; Educational policies for EMLs; Lesson planning
Major Assignments	Weekly reading charts; Community walk (focus of this study); Getting to know students’ funds of knowledge; Lesson plan and assessment; Field placement (30 hours of mentored teaching practice)

The study was conducted in two sections of ESL endorsement practicum course taught by the authors of this study. A total of 35 students were enrolled in the course, most of whom self-identified as monolingual, white, and female. This demographic composition aligns with the dominant profile of the teaching workforce in the US, which, according to the US Department of Education, is dominated by white women (U.S. DOE, 2016). This paper reports the data collected from a sample of 12 focal PSTs who consented to participate in the study. Everyone who expressed willingness to participate in the study was included. Upon our invitation at the end of the semester, 12 students (1 male and 11 females) agreed to participate in the study. Eight individuals allowed us to use their course assignments including the “community walk” project as part of this study. Four PSTs also agreed to participate in an interview at the end of the semester in addition to allowing us to use their course work. All the participants were in their early 20s at the time of the study and were in the final semester of the teacher preparation program. Eight participants self-identified as white, monolingual, and the remaining four reported as multilingual Asian students.

Positionality of the researchers

All the authors collaborated as instructors to teach two sections of the ESL methodology course which was the source of the data presented in this paper. Cárdenas Curiel is a professor in bi/multilingual education, ESL licensure area leader, course leader and instructor of the ESL methods course from this case study. She was an elementary and secondary bilingual teacher in Mexico, and a Spanish middle and high school teacher in the US. Her research in biliteracy and bilingualism centers on pedagogical spaces that provide a just education for bi/multilingual learners. Ojha is originally from Nepal and is currently a PhD candidate in curriculum, instruction and teacher education with a concentration in language and literacy education. He began his career as a high school English teacher in Nepal and later worked as a faculty member in a teacher education program at a public university before coming to the US. Zang is a doctoral candidate specializing in teacher preparation programs and multilingual education. She brings in first-hand experience in teaching English and Chinese across various contexts, including K-12 and higher education. Chen is a doctoral candidate in curriculum instruction and teacher education. A multilingual individual from China, she is interested in translanguaging pedagogies in dual language immersion programs.

The authors of this paper are multilingual immigrants from countries in Latin America and Asia. We reside in the university town and surrounding towns. The university and the university town have grown in tandem since its early years. International faculty and students at the university make up for the diverse demographics of the university town. While most of the people in the university town and its surrounding areas are white and monolinguals, there is a significant body of people from diverse communities including African Americans, Hispanic, Asians and a small number of native Americans. This demographic composition is linguistically and culturally diverse compared to the small towns and villages where most of the PSTs in our program grew up. The university has a strong relationship with the cities in the region, and the teacher preparation program has a long history of partnership with local schools and community organizations.

Collectively, our positionality as multilingual individuals, teacher educators and former K-12 teachers enhances our understanding of the significance of critical approaches to education including multilingual language awareness. Together, we are committed to fostering equitable educational opportunities for students from all backgrounds and work with an agenda to establish social justice as the goal of education through our work with in- and pre-service teachers.

Data collection: the linguistic community walk project

Data were generated from two sections of an ESL methodology course offered in the spring 2022 semester. We collected participants’ weekly written responses on required readings; video and audio recordings of the community spaces; oral or written reflections on the linguistic community walk assignment; and additional follow-up interviews with the PSTs asking them to reflect on their experience with the project in relation to their preparation as future teachers of EMLs. All required ethical guidelines were followed during the data collection, analysis and reporting for this project, including obtaining approval from the Institutional Review Board at our affiliated university where the study was conducted. The PSTs were approached for interviews only after the submission of the final grades to ensure that their participation was voluntary and had no impact on our perspectives toward them and their final grades.

The linguistic community walk project served as the first major assignment within the course. We designed the project with an aim to facilitate exploration of the community surrounding the schools where PSTs were placed for their mentored teaching practices. In their field-placement, PSTs were paired with experienced teachers to develop an understanding of the issues related to teaching English to EMLs. As part of the linguistic community walk project, all PSTs were expected to gather demographic data, investigate the history of the community, examine the resources available to EMLs at the local library, and visit a minimum of eight specific community spaces (including the local library) to gain a deeper understanding of the linguistic landscape and resources for EMLs within their selected community.

The purpose of the project was to engage PTSs in understanding the power, privilege and challenges for different groups of people in their chosen community and engage them in critical reflections on the notion of language, identity and education for EMLs as future teachers (see excerpt from the assignment sheet in Figure 1 introducing the assignment).

Figure 1. Assignment guidelines indicating rationale for the project.

Screenshot of the introductory segment of the assignment handout provided to pre-service teachers, highlighting the significance of engaging in a community walk for their preparation as educators of multilingual students.

PSTs worked for the assignment in several different stages. First, the PSTs had to choose a community to focus on during the walk. Next, they gathered demographic data followed by exploration of the history of the community. Then, they were asked to brainstorm the potential places in the chosen community for their visit. PSTs were required to visit eight places of their choice including the local library. Once they completed the preparatory work, PSTs visited different community spaces and interacted with the people they met there to understand their experiences with linguistic resources available to diverse groups of members of the community. They were required to document their visits through pictures and videos focusing on anything interesting they observed and experienced in relation to language use. Based on their research about the community and linguistic community walk, PSTs were required to reflect on their observations responding to the given prompts (See Figure 2) that asked them to critically analyze the linguistic resources available for EMLs in the community and think about potential ways they could serve their students. PSTs were then required to prepare a visual presentation of their visit and reflections as the final product of the assignment and upload the video on GoReact, a web-based software that allows instructors and students to comment on videos and provide feedback on the video timeline.

Figure 2. Reflection prompts for the community walk project.

Screenshot of the final segment of the assignment handout provided to pre-service teachers asking them to reflect on their community walk activity.

Data analysis

Our data analysis was guided by a hybrid approach of qualitative data analysis following both deductive and inductive approaches (Fereday & Muir-Cochrane, 2006), which allowed us to draw the best from both approaches. While the use of an inductive approach allowed us to generate insights from a grounded approach, a deductive approach to thematic analysis was used based on our “theoretical or analytic interest” in the research area (Braun & Clarke, 2006, p. 83). Our analysis process involved transcribing recorded videos, interviews, and oral reflections. All authors independently reviewed and analyzed the written reflections, video transcripts, and interview transcripts taking notes, comments and observations. Next, during our weekly team meetings, we discussed and compiled any data that caught our attention or seemed relevant to the study. Data such as the number of grocery stores or banks within the neighborhood were considered irrelevant for the purpose of the study. In contrast, data demonstrating the linguistic landscape of the selected community, such as signs written in a language other than English in libraries or locations that displayed not only English but multiple languages, would attract our attention. We carefully analyzed both written and oral reflections given the potential inclusion of participants’ subjective viewpoints in the reflections. We then categorized the data into themes and grouped related annotations. Two major themes discussed in the next section emerged from our analysis.

Findings

Based on our analysis of data, we present our findings in two main themes related to (1) awareness of language hierarchies and (2) commitment to support EMLs as future teachers. We first show how engagement with community linguistic landscape through linguistic community walk facilitated the development of PSTs’ awareness regarding existing language hierarchies in their chosen communities. We then describe how this newfound awareness impacted PSTs as they envision teaching practices for multilingual students.

Awareness of language hierarchies in community spaces and impact on EMLs

Our first major finding is centered around the impact of the linguistic community walk project on PSTs’ understanding of the language hierarchies. This finding is elaborated upon with three sub-themes: (1) lack of resources for emergent multilingual learners, (2) de facto English-only policies in community spaces, and (3) recognition of PSTs’ privilege as English speakers.

Lack of resources for emergent multilingual learners

Since most of the PSTs were born and raised in monolingual English-speaking families in rural or semi-urban communities, they grew up considering the use of English as the norm, both in and outside their schools. The findings suggest how engaging white monolingual PSTs in understanding the historical, demographic, and socio-cultural situation of the community surrounding their placement schools supported developing awareness of language hierarchies existing in society. This was evident in the videos shared by the PSTs as part of the assignment, especially in their reflections when they were asked to talk about linguistic composition of the people living in the areas they visited and the linguistic resources available at different public spaces including libraries, grocery stores, restaurants, places of worship. The PSTs shared a consensus regarding the limited opportunities available for individuals who did not know English or had emerging English language to access services available in the community.

For example, before going for the linguistic community walk, PSTs were asked to do a desk review of the socio-historical background of the places they were planning to visit and the current demographic structure. This was purposeful as one of the objectives of the assignment was to engage them in learning about the historical developments and current situation of the places so that they could reflect on the language practices and resources available to different communities of people living in the area. Many PSTs expressed that this process helped them understand the disparities in the resources available to the people who speak languages other than English in their homes and the linguistic needs of these people. Reflecting on her experience of the linguistic community walk project, Barbara shared:

This project has demonstrated to me how crucial it is to get to know the community you teach in. I have lived in this community for four years and have only realized now how much the city holds in terms of culture, language, and diversity. After completing this assignment, I understand that it is important to make a conscious effort to become familiar with the context you are teaching in (Video reflection, February 2022).

This statement reflects how engaging in the linguistic landscape was beneficial for Barbara to understand the importance of understanding the community and context where she was teaching. Interestingly, despite being in the community for 4 years, Barbara had not realized the magnitude of the diversity the city had. Therefore, she thought that “it is important to make a conscious effort to become familiar with the context you are teaching in.” Her words suggest and echo earlier studies (e.g., Zeichner et al. 2016) that highlight the need to provide PSTs with opportunities to have careful and intentional observations and analysis of the community that they will potentially serve as teachers.

Zoya also pointed out the lack of community resources in languages other than English as she reflected on her experience of engaging in the linguistic community walk. As mentioned in her video reflection, Zoya “didn’t expect the banks, restaurants and grocery stores to have anything significant” in languages other than English; however, it was “troubling” for her to see that “even the local library in the city with such a diverse population lacked books in different languages and about different cultures.” Similarly, Ana was not sure about the outcome of the visit initially, yet she found the activity meaningful. In particular, she considered knowing students’ community to be a part of the personal relation-building process as she thought getting to know students’ community helps teachers be familiar with students’ backgrounds and experiences. In the video reflection shared at the end of the linguistic community walk project, she mentioned:

I was a little hesitant about this assignment at first, but after completing it and getting more familiar with the area I have been placed in, I have a better understanding of the importance [of this activity]. As an educator, I think it is so important that you know your students and have a good relationship with them. You want them to know that you care not just about their learning, but also about them as a person (Video reflection, February 2022).

Visiting the communities also made the PSTs critical of the services offered to different groups of people as they found that the services in public places were not accessible to individuals who could not understand the English language. For example, discussing how the families speaking languages other than English might be at a disadvantage while availing the services, Maddie mentioned:

Resources least accessible to families and children at my school may include things like private tutoring, help at a monolingual community center, or services at the City Hall. Many of these services are expensive or do not accommodate, invite, and include people who speak other languages, making them inaccessible to families who are new to the city or speak other languages at home (Video reflection, February 2022).

As seen in the excerpt above, visiting the community and examining the language services available to different groups of people made Maddie realize how they were “inaccessible to families who are new to the city or speak other languages at home.” Annie made similar remarks when she visited an urgent care as she noted “[the urgent care] is not accessible to [people speaking] different languages. So, I thought this was one of the least accessible places I’ve visited.”

Overall, these statements made by the PSTs as they critically observed various public places in the community indicate their realization of the existing gaps in the available resources and need for linguistic inclusivity. In their reflections, PSTs suggested inclusion of multiple languages in the signages, brochures, websites and other materials that these places use to disseminate information to the visitors.

De Facto English-only policies in community spaces

Historically, minoritized people (e.g., Japanese immigrants in the late 19^th century and indigenous populations) with languages other than English were forced to assimilate and forced to abandon their home languages privileging individuals who spoke English and setting the stage for the development of English-only ideologies in US society. Currently, monolingual ideologies continue to permeate the US, suggesting English as the only acceptable way of communicating between individuals (Endo & Reece-Miller, 2010). The racially motivated policy and programs favoring the White monolingual English speakers have contributed to establishing US as a “White public space” (Hill, 1998) as English is commonly used in most societal domains including public spaces such as schools, libraries, and grocery stores and de facto English-only policies continue to be part of modern society. As part of the course readings and classroom discussions, we brought this fact to the attention of the PSTs on various occasions. We discuss how this English-only mentality infiltrates political decisions made for the teaching and learning of EMLs in schooling. In line with the goals of this project, PSTs were asked to examine the role and status of various languages in their chosen communities.

Findings showed that PSTs’ close look at the language services offered by different public places helped them think about how English was the only language used despite a sizable population from other linguistic communities. For instance, Kristin noted, “Although there are some places of worship, grocery stores, and resources at the library for speakers of other languages, it seems that most of the places and facilities cater to English speakers.” Another PST, Heidi, who came from a rural village in the same state, shared how visiting the community helped her to know about the diversity in the area and lack of support for the speakers of languages other than English. While reflecting on the project, she shared, “I hadn’t noticed the diversity of cultures and languages in the community before. And I … felt bad that some language and cultural resources are not well supported in public areas.” Reflections from both PSTs illuminate their awareness of de facto English language policy existing in the community and indicate the need for language inclusivity in these spaces.

Knowing about the history and demographics of the community they visited, PSTs also thought about the linguistic needs of the people living there. For example, after finding out about the presence of a large Dutch-speaking population in the area, Lindsay expected that she would find the use of the Dutch language in some of the community spaces she had planned to visit. To her surprise, none of the places she visited had any use of Dutch. Lindsay noted:

There is also a large Dutch population here, which leads me to believe that Dutch is also valued, however, it does not appear anywhere…. I believe English is used much more frequently…. It was very challenging to find restaurants near the school that had menu items in other languages (Video reflection, February 2022).

Another PST, Kara, thought that places of worship such as Church would be welcoming to people from various communities and make their services accessible to the non-English-speaking population. She was disappointed to find that the church offered services in English only. In her post-visit reflection, she shared:

Unfortunately, there’s no option of different languages, which is shocking to me, especially considering that there are so many different languages silenced… It’s very hard if you’re speaking a different language to go to these services where it’s only English (Interview, May 2022).

According to Kara, the Church called itself “multicultural” and stated on its website that they “strive joyfully and powerfully to warm welcome all … freely share the blessing and humbly accept God’s love.” Kara was excited to read this on their website but when she explored their website further, she did not find any information in languages other than English. During her visit to the church, she discovered that the church offered services in English. This was shocking for her as she expected that a community space that claimed to welcome people from all backgrounds limited itself to those who can speak and understand English. In her reflection, she was critical about how all the spaces she visited had de facto English use, although most of them claimed to be “welcoming to all people.”

These findings clearly indicate the domination of the English language and mere absence of other languages in community spaces that members of the non-English-speaking groups might visit on a regular basis. Since the greater metropolitan region where our PSTs chose to go for linguistic community walk had a large and growing refugee population from various non-English-speaking countries, it can be expected that there is a dire need for linguistic support for these newcomers who might struggle to make use of the community resources. However, like in earlier studies (e.g., Zhang-Wu & Tian, 2023), the PSTs in our study were critical about these practices and questioned the de facto English policies in the community spaces they visited.

Recognition of PSTs’ privilege as English speakers

Throughout the course, we engaged the PSTs in critically reflecting on their own life experiences and as they read issues related to EMLs and ways to support their educational needs. This was useful to support the PSTs in understanding the critical role that language and culture play in shaping their own identity and access to resources in both community and school spaces. There was a general sense of agreement among all PSTs that belonging to the dominant community allowed them to enjoy the privilege that the EMLs were deprived of.

By immersing themselves in various community spaces and closely observing the linguistic resources accessible to speakers of different languages, the PSTs gained valuable insights into the advantages for their monolingual English-speaking backgrounds in the community they visited. This realization was particularly significant for the students who came from monolingual English-speaking households and attended schools with students and teachers from similar backgrounds. Since this group constituted most participants in the study, reflecting the demographic trends among teachers in the US, the linguistic community walk project provided them with valuable opportunity for self-reflection on their own lived experiences.

When asked to reflect on how this project impacted the development of their awareness about their own identity in relation to their pedagogical orientations, PSTs shared various insights. For example, in her reflection at the end of the linguistic community walk video, Amy noted:

I knew knowing English was important to succeed in this country, but I had never thought how I benefitted because of my background coming from an English-speaking home. This project gave me new perspectives to look at language, power and privilege (Video reflection, February 2022).

As seen in the excerpt above, Amy was able to rethink the power that language and culture hold in terms of access to education – something she had taken for granted growing up in a white monolingual community. Amy’s newfound awareness about the barriers faced by non-English speakers to access various resources in the community spaces was a result of her critical engagement with the linguistic resources available to different groups of people in the community that she studies. In addition, course readings and classroom discussions related to the lack of support for EMLs, and their families might have supported PTSs like Amy in this process.

Several monolingual English-speaking PSTs also acknowledged the colonial legacies they have inherited. While researching the socio-cultural and political history of their chosen community, all the PSTs highlighted the encroachment of the indigenous land and culture by settler colonial forces, which indicates their developing awareness of the colonial oppression and impact on indigenous languages and communities (García, 2017). This sentiment was also reflected in classroom discussion during the family history project, where PSTs were encouraged to explore their ancestral heritage and share in the classroom. These lessons were important for the PSTs as aspiring teachers as they were developing critical awareness about the privilege that dominant groups of people continue to enjoy, while those belonging to marginalized communities experience multiple forms of discrimination and bias (Barrett et al., 2022) are pushed further back by depriving them of the access to community resources. Additionally, engaging critically and reflectively with the community linguistic resources also helped them in understanding the dynamic community practices that these communities have (Alim et al., 2020)

After discussing the impact of the linguistic community walk on the PSTs’ awareness about the various issues related to language policies, their own linguistic identities and status of resources for EMLs in the community, we now move to our second major finding and discuss how this further influenced PSTs’ pedagogical orientations as they envisioned teaching EMLs in their classrooms,

Commitment to support EMLs as future teachers

As stated in the course description, the linguistic community walk project encompassed three main components: The PSTs explored the history and demographics of the area, followed by a tour of the community observing the linguistic landscape and language resources, and finally reflected on their observations, interactions, and experiences. Analysis of the participants’ written and oral reflections revealed their commitments to support EMLs as future teachers. Two sub-themes that stood out during our data analysis are discussed below.

Valuing multilingual identities in the classroom

The linguistic community walk project served as the initial major project within the ESL method course. It was conducted before the PSTs began their 30-hours fieldwork in the placement school. Therefore, they had not had direct contact with the students. Kara, one of the PSTs, was not sure of the benefits of doing the linguistic community walk in the beginning and stated that she was “a little hesitant about this assignment” due to her previous service-learning experience in the community in her freshman year of college. However, after completing the linguistic community walk, she discovered that in addition to English, “Black [English] Language and Spanish are also very important languages in the community.” Encouraged from her experience in the project, she further noted, “As an educator, the best way to get to know a student is to learn about their community and origins. It is a big part of their culture and who they are.” Her statement resonated with our initial finding that PSTs were unaware of the diversity present among the students in the placement school and the languages used within the community.

Kyle, a bilingual individual himself, highlighted the significance of valuing students’ identities. First, he shared his observations from his walk:

I can see that most of the services in the community are provided only in English. Whether [it’s] restaurants, shops, or libraries, [they] are dominated by English. Students and their families can get resources to learn English but if they come from immigrant-background families [and do not know English], or they want to know other languages, … it’s not convenient (Video reflection, February 2022).

Later, Kyle added his perspective as an educator and shared:

For students with other language backgrounds, we need to provide more materials and support. We need to help them find a stronger sense of belonging by providing resources … for their cultural identity. We need to build an atmosphere and activities for them in the class to help them get recognition (Video reflection, February 2022).

Judy, who was assigned to the same school as Kyle, voiced her concerns about the community’s lack of resources for bilingual students. Even though her students must learn and speak English to “fit in” with the community, she argued that teachers need to help them “retain their language and culture.”

The experiences shared by Kara, Kyle and Judy are consistent with our first major finding, which highlighted the dominance of English in the communities and PSTs’ initial lack of awareness regarding cultural and linguistic diversity present within the community and their placement schools. However, with the help of the linguistic community walk project, the PSTs demonstrated an understanding of the importance of valuing the cultural and linguistic identities of EMLs in their prospective teaching settings.

Envisioning authentic and culturally relevant classroom

As the PSTs demonstrated their awareness of the importance of valuing the multilingual identities of students, they also emphasized the importance of implementing effective strategies to create authentic culturally relevant classrooms to support EMLs. PSTs thought that creating a school that is supportive of students from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds both within the classroom and other spaces in school was crucial for creating a safe space. For instance, envisioning her pedagogical approach as a future teacher, Kristin shared:

Moving into my classroom in the future, I would really like to make sure that I promote other languages besides just English. I want to be mindful of moving forward and making sure that every student feels included, and their native language is represented in the classroom, which is a safe space for them (Video reflection, February 2022).

Another PST, Barbara, shared similar sentiments, suggesting that teachers could utilize language support books as a valuable resource to facilitate learners and compensate. She noted: “These resources could help me find texts that model the language learning skills that I’m teaching … I could also direct students to use this resource if available for them.”

Furthermore, several PSTs emphasized the crucial role of pedagogical materials and activities in honoring and nurturing multilingual and multicultural identities of learners. Kyle shared this in his reflection that “[F]or students with other language backgrounds, we need to provide more materials and support … and relevant activities for them to help them get recognition.” Annie shared similar thoughts as she believed that teachers need to demonstrate an interest in their students’ cultural and language backgrounds:

In regard to teaching, I could ask what my students’ favorite places are in the community. I think they could bond over this if they have been to the same place as their peers. This would allow me to understand more of what the students enjoy, along with what is special about the community (Video reflection, February 2022).

Reflecting on their experiences, PSTs became aware of the lack of resources available for the EMLs within the community. This inspired them to consider the possibility of creating and gathering their own valuable resources as many of them thought that classrooms and school libraries could be the starting points to provide support to EMLs. For example, during the reflective interview, Hannah shared how she could use translanguaging in her classroom with students from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds. She mentioned:

After knowing about the community demographics and linguistic landscape that students come across in their everyday life, I realized how valuable translanguaging can be in my class … as my students will come from families speaking several different languages … As their teacher, I will make sure they do not feel the pressure to use English all the time and can be their true self as multilinguals in my class (Interview, May 2022).

Knowing about the history and demographics of the community together with the language use and resource in community spaces helped Hanna think how she could utilize the translanguaging that she was introduced to through course readings and classroom discussions. Several other PSTs felt the need to have a flexible language policy in their classrooms and demonstrated their translanguaging orientation (García et al., 2017) as they embark into teaching.

Discussion

With the increasing diversity within the student population in the US, teacher educators and researchers are constantly striving to think about the most effective ways to prepare PSTs to serve EMLs who now comprise a significant portion of total student population in the country (National Center for Educational Statistics NCES, 2023). In this paper, we report the findings of an ESL methodology course attended by PSTs from various academic disciplines, who aimed to support their EMLs as they embark on their teaching careers. Specifically, we investigated (1) How engaging PSTs in a linguistic community walk project influenced their understanding of the existing disparities in access to community resources for people from different linguistic backgrounds, and (2) How this experience impacted their pedagogical orientations to support the teaching and learning of EMLs.

Overall, our findings indicate that participating in linguistic community walks facilitated the development of PSTs’ understanding of language hierarchies prevalent in the community such as the lack of resources for multilingual learners, de facto English-only policies in community spaces and recognition of their own privilege as English speakers with abundant linguistic resources throughout their upbringing, both in their communities and in schools. Additionally, our analysis revealed that PSTs demonstrated strong commitment to supporting EMLs as they realized the importance of valuing multilingual identities of their students in the classroom and were dedicated to creating authentic and culturally relevant learning environments as they embarked on their teaching careers.

These findings are consistent with previous research that emphasize the importance of fostering critical language awareness among PSTs (e.g., Deroo & Ponzio, 2023; Zhang-Wu & Tian, 2023). We believe it is important for PSTs to develop positive attitudes toward EMLs’ whole linguistic repertoires and take a culturally and linguistically sustaining approach (Alim & Paris, 2017) to teaching EMLs as this supports the development of necessary pedagogical tools to support their students effectively as they start their teaching career. Due to the limitation of this paper, we have only presented our findings regarding how PSTs perceived the linguistic community walk project and the impact this project had on their pedagogical orientations. Nevertheless, our broader project also included lesson plans and video recordings of their classroom instruction, which illuminated PSTs’ commitment to build on students’ funds of knowledge (Moll et al., 1992) by taking a translanguaging stance (García et al., 2017) in terms of lessons taught and materials employed to teach EMLs.

While engaging in the linguistic community walks and reflecting on the linguistic landscape might not automatically lead PSTs to be able to incorporate the pedagogical strategies necessary to support the EMLs, our findings indicate shifts in PSTs linguistic ideologies and commitment to support EMLs. This also contributed to developing consciousness of the importance of honoring EMLs identities holistically and reflecting on the importance of adopting a culturally sustaining pedagogy in their classrooms to “perpetuate and foster – to sustain – linguistic, literate, and cultural pluralism as part of the democratic project of schooling and as a needed response to demographic and social change” (Paris & Alim, 2014, p. 88).

Additionally, data presented in this paper indicates that PSTs found their engagement with the community linguistic resources meaningful to their future self as teachers. While the linguistic community walk supported their understanding of everyday struggles experienced by people from linguistically marginalized communities, it specifically provided opportunities for PSTs to think about EMLs’ perspectives as they relate to the essential role played by language to access key information – both in classroom and outside – to navigate life in society. This also helped them think how they could provide meaningful learning experiences from EMLs while reflecting on the ways to engage with linguistically diverse families and communities. We argue that this is an important step toward becoming teachers who strive to adopt pedagogies that center the growth and joy of the students at the center while fighting the injustices that students from marginalized communities experience in their everyday lives. Adopting a critical perspective on race, language and power is an important step toward creating a positive learning community as “Teachers cannot understand and create spaces for joy for all children without understanding ideologies and practices of anti-racism” (Muhammad, 2020, p. 200) that students from marginalized communities face both in school and society. PSTs critical reflections throughout the project suggested that they realized the importance of acknowledging EMLs social and cultural capital and support them by designing a classroom pedagogy that builds on EMLs funds of knowledge (Moll et al., 1992) to maximize their learning opportunities.

PSTs demonstrated a strong awareness of recognizing multilingualism as part of EMLs’ developing identities as they developed recognition and understanding of diverse populations within a community for future teaching practice (García, 2017). They began thinking about incorporating culturally sustaining pedagogy to address linguistic diversity in their teaching by designing culturally and linguistically relevant materials (Cárdenas & Ponzio Cárdenas Curiel, L. & Ponzio, C., 2021). We consider incorporation of the linguistic community walk activity as a prerequisite to design linguistically responsive teacher education (Lucas et al., 2008) as it helps PSTs take a multilingual stance (García & Kleyn, 2016) and helps build PSTs’ knowledge base about the local language landscape by understanding the socio-cultural history followed by actual survey of the linguistic resources available in the community spaces.

Furthermore, our study lines up with scholarship that values the importance of place-based approach to teacher education which emphasizes “context and the value of learning from and nurturing specific places, communities” (Gruenewald, 2003, p. 3). Our findings also call for the incorporation of teacher education programs that are rooted in community (Mahan et al., 1983; Zeichner et al. 2016). These approaches play a pivotal role in enabling PSTs to comprehend the socio-cultural and historical realities of the community they may serve as teachers in the future. Such an approach is deemed vital for fostering critical consciousness among PSTs supporting them to take actions to fight ongoing inequalities and injustices experienced by students from diverse communities (García, 2017).

While our findings show a positive impact of engaging with the linguistic landscape in the community to develop CMLA of the PSTs and their pedagogical orientations to affirm their linguistic and cultural backgrounds, we are cognizant of the tensions that PSTs might face while engaged in the actual act of designing lessons and implementing them in their classrooms. Due to the focus of this paper on exploring how the linguistic community influenced the development of CMLA and pedagogical orientations, we have not included any data related to PSTs’ actual practices and potential tensions that they might have encountered. While we understand that including such data and discussion would make the paper richer, due to the focus and word limitation, we have decided not to include any further data.

We also acknowledge that various factors including institutionalized ideologies (Clark McEvoy, 2017) and institutional habitus (Kanno, 2021) might influence these PSTs pedagogical decisions as they start teaching. However, having an ideological clarity (Assaf & Dooley, 2010) and awareness of linguistic hierarchies and power structure that influence the education and lives of linguistically diverse students is important for PSTs to be able to take charge as classroom language policymakers (Menken & García, 2010). Therefore, we believe that the findings of this study offer insights for teacher education programs to be more intentional about developing CMLA of PSTs enrolled in their programs.

Conclusions, implications, and future directions

In this study, we examined how engaging PSTs in linguistic community walks around the neighborhoods of their field placement schools facilitated in developing their CMLA as part of their coursework for ESL endorsement. Analysis of PSTs’ reflection on the project demonstrated that their critical visits to different community spaces including libraries, grocery stores, financial institutions, restaurants, government offices, and places of worship helped them learn about the dominance of the English language and lack of support for people speaking other languages. Knowing about the disproportionate allocation of resources that put linguistically and culturally marginalized communities at disadvantage challenged PSTs to think critically about their students who encountered these public spaces on an everyday basis. This further inspired them to rethink their own pedagogical orientations considering the need for additional support that they might need to provide to EMLs in their classrooms.

Based on the experiences and reflections of the PSTs, we conclude that engaging PSTs in critical reflections on language hierarchies and needs of students from diverse backgrounds is a crucial step toward designing effective culturally sustaining classroom pedagogies (Alim & Paris, 2017) that support academic and personal growth of all students. However, it is equally important for these PSTs to maintain ongoing engagement with the communities they serve as educators once they begin their teaching careers. Ultimately, it is crucial to enhance teachers’ awareness of students’ multilingual practices and utilize various spaces and modalities to foster students’ comprehension, creativity, and critical thinking regarding their multilingual abilities (García, 2017). To achieve this, new teachers should be offered opportunities for continuous critical professional development during teacher induction period (Kohli et al., 2015). Since language plays a central role in teaching and learning process, teacher education programs should also make greater and more deliberate efforts to prepare linguistically responsive teachers (Lucas & Villegas, 2013).

An important implication in our role as course instructors and teacher educators is to make visible the connections about languaging, linguistic funds of knowledge, and interpretations of linguistic inequities in PSTs’ teaching processes. Both collectively and individually, we, the authors of this paper, strive to gain insights from our documented classroom practices, as done in this paper, and subsequently revise our course materials, assignments, and classroom activities. This undertaking aims to enhance our ability to better serve the PSTs enrolled in our program.

Although the current study reported the linguistic community walk experience of PSTs by analyzing interviews, written, oral, and video reflections, data from lesson plans and classroom observations would better inform how PSTs employ approaches and strategies to engage multilingual students in actual teaching practices. Based on a discussion of our findings, we envision that teacher educators and researchers willing to contribute to similar issues in the field should attend to two key areas: 1) the implemention of a CMLA approach in their pedagogy during their beginning teaching years and how they start to unpack certain linguistic privileges that persist in classrooms, and 2) performing an analysis of PSTs classroom teaching practices to understand how their critical reflections on the linguistic community walks influence their beginning teaching practices involving EMLs.

Acknowledgement

Lucía Cárdenas Curiel offers gratitude to Dr. Haydeé Rodríguez for sharing her wisdom in engaging with Latinx communities through neighborhood walks, “caminatas,” during her teaching assistanship in the Spanish methods course at the University of Texas at Austin.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).