A relational and genealogical approach to populism: The cases of Russia, Turkey and the United States

ABSTRACT

Studies on religious populism are on the rise. They are located within the three main theoretical approaches of populism: ideational, performative, and strategic. Building on these three components, this paper proposes a comprehensive analysis by creating an ideal type of the relations between religion and populism. To that effect, it utilizes the relational paradigm of populism from Pierre Ostiguy in conjunction with Ernest Laclau's concept of sedimented practices and applies a genealogical method to analyse why and how religion plays a role in populist politics. This combination emphasises the fluidity of the interactions between religion and populism, their contingency on contextualised political cultures as well as on the often neglected transnational forms of religion. It focuses on two aspects of this role that have been less discussed: 1) the religious actions toward the political establishment 2) the transnational dimension of the populist politics based on religion.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

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5 J.P. Zúquete, ‘Populism and Religion’ in Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser et al. (eds) The Oxford Handbook of Populism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017), p. 453.

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7 C. Mudde, op. cit.

8 G. Ben-Porat, et al., ‘Populism, Religion and Family Values Policies in Israel, Italy and Turkey’, Mediterranean Politics (2021), pp. 1–23.

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10 K. Weyland, ‘Populism: A Political-Strategic Approach’ in Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser et al. (eds) The Oxford Handbook of Populism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017), p. 68.

11 N.A. Sandal, ‘Religious Populist Parties, Nationalisms, and Strategies of Competition: The Case of the AK Party in Turkey’, Religion, State and Society, 49:3 (2021), p. 248–263. doi:10.1080/09637494.2021.1949216

12 T. Cremer, ‘Nations Under God: How Church-State Relations Shape Christian Responses to Right-Wing Populism in Germany and the United States’, Religions, 12:4 (2021), p. 254.

13 E. Peker and E. Laxer, ‘Populism and Religion: Toward a Global Comparative Agenda’, Comparative Sociology, 20:3 (2021), pp. 317–343.

14 E. Laclau, On Populist Reason (London: Verso, 2005).

15 M. Bergunder, ‘What is Religion? The Unexplained Subject Matter of Religious Studies’, Method and Theory in the Study of Religion, 26:3 (2014), pp. 246–286; see also R.T. McCutcheon, ‘The Critical Religion Association’, Approaches to the Study of Religion, https://criticalreligion.org/scholars/mccutcheon-russell-t/ (Accessed March 6, 2024).

16 G. Maltese, ‘Reproductive Politics and Populism: Pentecostal Religion and Hegemony in the Philippines’, Journal of Law and Religion, 34:1 (2019), pp. 64–84. https://doi.org/10.1017/jlr.2019.13

17 P. Ostiguy, ‘The High-Low Divide: Rethinking Populism and Anti-Populism’, Committee on Concepts and Methods, 35 (2009), pp. 5–9.

18 Ibid.

19 There are studies of populism beyond nation but they do not discuss religion as such, see F.A. Stengel, D.B. MacDonald, and D. Nabers (eds), Populism and World Politics: Exploring Inter and Transnational Dimensions (New York: Springer, 2019); D.F. Wajner, ‘The Populist Way Out: Why Contemporary Populist Leaders Seek Transnational Legitimation’, The British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 24:3 (2022), pp. 416–436.

20 For a focus on religion and nationalism see R. Brubaker, ‘Populism and Nationalism’, Nations and Nationalism, 26:1 (2019), pp. 44–66.

21 G. Ben Porat and D. Filc, ‘Remember to be Jewish: Religious Populism in Israel’, Politics and Religion, (2020), pp. 1–24; 2.

22 For Russia and Turkey, native speakers researchers were part of the project. Materials used for the meta-analysis are accessible in the dataverse; “A Relational and Genealogical Approach to Religion and Populism.” https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/V9NLPH, Harvard Dataverse, V1.

23 See “A Relational and Genealogical Approach to Religion and Populism.” https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/V9NLPH, Harvard Dataverse, V1.

24 A. Van Engen, ‘How America Became a “City Upon A Hill”’, Humanities, 41:1 (2020).

25 C. Conant, ‘Trump Falsely Says Biden, a Practicing Catholic, is “Against God”’, CBS News, 7 August 2020, https://www.cbsnews.com/news/trump-biden-against-god-false-claim/

26 J. Manchester, ‘GOP Watches as Trump’s Problems with Suburban Women Go On Display’, The Hill, 27 May 2023, https://thehill.com/policy/healthcare/4002482-gop-fears-trumps-problems-with-suburban-women-will-only-get-worse/

27 Trump White House Archives, ‘Farewell Address’, 19 January 2021, https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/farewell-address/?utm_source=facebook.

28 C. Kuruvilla, ‘Trump’s Evangelical Supporters on Apostles’ Creed Gaffe: “I Can’t Sing Either”’, Huffington Post, 7 December 2018, https://www.huffpost.com/entry/trumps-evangelical-supporters-on-apostles-creed-gaffe-i-cant-sing-either_n_5c09b1fce4b0b6cdaf5d7920. Atar

29 The Diyanet is responsible for drafting the weekly sermons delivered in mosques, training imams and providing religious education in public schools.

30 C. Boyraz, ‘Neoliberal Populism and Governmentality in Turkey: The Foundation of Communication Centers During the AKP Era’, Philosophy and Social Criticism, 44:4 (2018), pp. 437–452, p. 438.

31 S.E. Aytaç and E. Elçi, ‘Populism in Turkey’ in Daniel Stockemer (ed) Populism Around the World: A Comparative Perspective (Switzerland: Springer, 2019), p. 103.

32 F. Tanis. “Erdogan’s Victory Could Be Fateful for Turkey’s Democracy and Role in the World.” NPR, 29 May 2023. https://www.npr.org/2023/05/29/1178711800/erdogan-turkey-election-takeaways.

33 ‘AKP Executive Says Erdoğan Sent by God as a Hope for Muslims’, Turkish Minute, 26 December 2017, https://www.turkishminute.com/2017/12/26/akp-executive-says-Erdoğan-sent-by-god-as-a-hope-for-muslims/.

34 Reuters Staff, ‘Russian Orthodox Nationalists Hope for Tsar’s Return’, Reuters, 9 August 2018, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-nationalists/russian-orthodox-nationalists-hope-for-tsars-return-idUSKBN1KU1C7.

35 ‘Russia in Focus—The Challenges we Must Face’, Russia Today, 16 January 2012, https://www.rt.com/russia/official-word/putin-russia-focus-challenges-845/

36 ‘Putin Blessed by Patriarch Kirill after Being Sworn in’, Russia Today, 7 May 2018, https://www.rt.com/news/426053-putin-blessed-patriarch-kirill/.

37 BBC Worldwide Monitoring, ‘Putin Addresses Orthodox Slavic Values Conference in Ukraine – Kremlin Text’, BBC News, 29 July 2013.

38 C. Weaver, ‘Why US Evangelicals are Flocking to Trump’, Financial Times, 2 October 2020, https://www.ft.com/content/de8dcd60-4bbf-4f3b-a1d7-e9eefb936c7f.

39 N. Buckley, ‘Putin Urges Russia to Return to Values of Religion’, Financial Times, 19 September 2013, https://www.ft.com/content/cdedfd64-214f-11e3-a92a-00144feab7de.

40 Reuters Staff, ‘Russia’s Putin Says Liberal Values are Obsolete: Financial Times’, Reuters, 27 June 2019, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-putin-europe-values/russias-putin-says-liberal-values-are-obsolete-financial-times-idUSKCN1TS2UF.

41 S. Van Sant, ‘Russia Criminalizes the Spread of Online News Which ‘Disrespects’ the Government’, NPR, 18 March 2019, https://www.npr.org/2019/03/18/704600310/russia-criminalizes-the-spread-of-online-news-which-disrespects-the-government.

42 C. Bleiker, ‘Evangelicals: Donald Trump’s anti-abortion base’, DW, 6 October 2020, https://www.dw.com/en/us-2020-election-abortion-evangelicals-donald-trump/a-55159590.

43 M.A. Thiessen, ‘Trump Might be the Most Pro-religion President Ever’, Des Moines Register, 29 March 2018, https://www.desmoinesregister.com/story/opinion/columnists/2018/03/29/trump-pro-religion-president-christian-conservatives/470261002/.

44 HRC Staff, ‘The Real List of Trump’s “Unprecedented Steps” for the LGBTQ Community’, Human Rights Campaign, 11 June 2020, https://www.hrc.org/news/the-list-of-trumps-unprecedented-steps-for-the-lgbtq-community.

45 D. Bouscaren, ‘Hundreds Protest Turkey’s Withdrawal from Treaty to Prevent Violence Against Women’, The World, 2 July 2021, https://www.pri.org/stories/2021-07-02/hundreds-protest-turkey-s-withdrawal-treaty-prevent-violence-against-women.

46 A. Makovsky, ‘Re-Educating Turkey: AKP Efforts to Promote Religious Values in Turkish Schools’, Center for American Progress, 2015, https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/09115835/Re-EducatingTurkey.pdf.

47 N. Mitrokhin, ‘The Russian Orthodox Church in Contemporary Russia: Structural Problems and Contradictory Relations with the Government, 2000-2008’, Social Research 76:1 (2009), pp. 289–320.

48 R. Coalson, ‘Russian Priest Sparks Firestorm by Calling Cohabitating Women ‘Unpaid Prostitutes’, RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty, 17 February 2020, https://www.rferl.org/a/russian-priest-sparks-firestorm-by-calling-cohabitating-women-unpaid-prostitutes-/30439887.html.

49 O. Wæver, ‘Politics, Security, Theory’, Security Dialogue 42:4-5 (2011), pp. 465-480. See also N.A. Sandal, op. cit., pp. 248–263.

50 M. Wilner, ‘Trump Emphasizes Intent to Protect Christian Americans’, Jerusalem Post, 13 June 2016.

51 Belfast Telegraph Online, ‘Donald Trump: Islam hates the West’, 10 March 2016.

52 ‘Trump Courts Evangelicals, Says Christianity “Under Siege”’, The Times of Israel, 19 January 2016.

53 Z. Beauchamp, ‘Trump Says his Refugee Ban is About Protecting America. It’s Really About Islamophobia’, Vox News, 28 January 2017, https://www.vox.com/world/2017/1/28/14424940/trump-refugee-ban-muslims-islamophobia.

54 R. Pennacchia, ‘Donald Trump Thinks Barack Obama is an Actual Muslim Terrorist, Better Nuke The White House’, Wonkette, 13 June 2016, https://www.wonkette.com/donald-trump-thinks-barack-obama-is-an-actual-muslim-terrorist-better-nuke-the-white-house.

55 A. Christie-Miller, “Caesareans are Plot to Stop Our Nation’s Growth, Claims Erdogan”, The Times, 28 May 2012, https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/caesareans-are-plot-to-stop-our-nations-growth-claims-erdogan-xl6hg66b52b.

56 “President Erdoğan Hails Women’s Rights, Vows Action against Violence”, Daily Sabah, 8 March 2022, https://www.dailysabah.com/turkey/president-erdogan-hails-womens-rights-vows-action-against-violence/news.

57 Aslanidis does not study religious populism but what he calls Great Recession Movements (GRMs) such as Occupy Wall Street and the Greek and Spanish indignados. ‘Populism as a Collective Action Master Frame for Transnational Mobilization’, Sociological Forum, 33:2 (2018), pp. 443–464.

58 S. Destradi and J. Plagemann, ‘Populism and International Relations: (Un)predictability, Personalization, and the Reinforcement of Existing Trends in World Politics’, Review of International Studies, 45:5 (2019), pp. 711–730; D.F. Wajner, ‘The Populist Way Out: Why Contemporary Populist Leaders Seek Transnational Legitimation’, The British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 24:3 (2022), pp. 416–436.

59 Times of Israel Staff, ‘Trump Says He Moved US Embassy to Jerusalem “For The Evangelicals”’, The Times of Israel, 18 August 2020, https://www.timesofisrael.com/trump-says-he-moved-us-embassy-to-jerusalem-for-the-evangelicals/.

60 ‘Erdoğan Calls for Unity Among Muslim States as Leaders Gather in Istanbul’, Middle East Eye, 15 April 2016, https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/Erdoğan-calls-unity-among-muslim-states-leaders-gather-istanbul.

61 I.N. Grigoriadis, ‘Türk or Türkiyeli? The Reform of Turkey’s Minority Legislation and the Rediscovery of Ottomanism’, Middle Eastern Studies, 43:3 (2007), pp. 423–438.

62 A.K. Yildirim, ‘Triumphalism in Hagia Sophia’, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 29 July 2020, https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/82390.

63 A.K. Yildirim, op. cit.

64 TRT World, ‘President Erdoğan’s Public Address on Hagia Sophia’, YouTube, 13 July 2020, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0x-ROvVnPXU.

65 M.H. Yavuz, ‘Erdoğan’s Ottomania’, Boston Review, 8 August 2018, http://bostonreview.net/politics/m-hakan-yavuz-Erdoğan-ottomanophilia.

66 ‘In the face of attacks against our sacred values, it is the duty of all of us to put aside all our differences and meet on the common ground of Islam’, Presidency of the Republic of Turkey, 28 November 2020, https://www.tccb.gov.tr/en/news/542/122979/-in-the-face-of-attacks-against-our-sacred-values-it-is-the-duty-of-all-of-us-to-put-aside-all-our-differences-and-meet-on-the-common-ground-of-islam-.

67 Ibid.

68 N. Naydenova, ‘Holy Rus: (Re)Construction of Russia’s Civilizational Identity’, Slavonica, 21:1–2 (2016), pp. 37–48.

69 Orthodoxy.ru, ‘Patriarch Cyril: Rossiya – eto strana-civilizaciya’, Patriarch Cyril: Russia is a Civilisation, 13 October 2013, www.pravoslavie.ru/65312.html.

70 ‘Russkiy Mir: Russian World’, German Council on Foreign Relations, 3 May 2016, https://dgap.org/en/events/russkiy-mir-russian-world.

71 ‘Patriarch Cyril: Rossiya – eto strana-civilizaciya’, Orthodoxy.ru, 13 October 2013, www.pravoslavie.ru/65312.html.

72 Russia-backed separatist groups in Donetsk and Luhansk entered in an armed conflict with the Ukrainian government. It has resulted in more than 10,000 civilian casualties and 1.5 million displaced people.

73 ‘Extracts from Putin’s speech on Ukraine’, Reuters, 21 February 2022, https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/extracts-putins-speech-ukraine-2022-02-21/.

74 J. Jenkins, ‘Ukraine Orthodox Leader Likens Putin to the Antichrist’, Religion News Services, 28 February 2022, https://religionnews.com/2022/02/28/ukraine-orthodox-leader-likens-putin-to-the-antichrist/.

75 A.Wilson, ‘Russia, Ukraine, and the Orthodox Church: Where Religion Meets Geopolitics and War’, ECFR, 23 June 2022, https://ecfr.eu/article/russia-ukraine-and-the-orthodox-church-where-religion-meets-geopolitics-and-war/.

76 Department for External Church Relations, ‘Speech by the President of Russia Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin before the Participants of the Episcopal Council of the Russian Orthodox Church’, The Russian Orthodox Church, 1 December 2017, https://mospat.ru/en/news/47929/.

77 ‘Turkish Leader Erdogan Assails Europe, Calls It “Sick,” “Collapsing”’, RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty, 10 April 2017, https://www.rferl.org/a/turkey-erdogan-europe-referendum-european-union/28420141.html.

78 ‘Erdoğan Warns ‘Race of Islamophobia’ by Public Authorities in the West’, Hurriyet Daily News, 25 May 2021, https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/Erdoğan-warns-race-of-islamophobia-by-public-authorities-in-the-west-165004.

79 A. Rettman, ‘Putin Declares Holy War on Western “Satanism”’, EU Observer, 30 September 2022, https://euobserver.com/world/156188.

80 C.D. Plessis, A. Miridzhanian, and B. Acharya, ‘BRICS Welcomes New Members in Push to Reshuffle World Order’, Reuters, 25 August 2023, https://www.reuters.com/world/brics-poised-invite-new-members-join-bloc-sources-2023-08-24/

81 K. Stoeckl, ‘The Russian Orthodox Church and Neo-Nationalism’ in F. Höhne and T. Meireis (eds) Religion and Neo-Nationalism in Europe (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2020), pp. 311–320.

82 D. Nabers and F.A. Stengel, ‘Sedimented Practices and American Identity in Donald J. Trump’s Election Campaign’ in F.A. Stengel, D.B. MacDonald, and D. Nabers (eds) Populism and World Politics (Palgrave Macmillan, 2019), pp. 15–16, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04621-7_5

83 P. Gorski, American Covenant: A History of Civil Religion from the Puritans to the Present (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2017).

84 See R.H. Williams, ‘Civil Religion and the Cultural Politics of National Identity in Obama’s America’, Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 52 (2013), pp. 239–257.

85 Pew Research Center, op. cit.

86 ‘Symphonia’ in Eastern Orthodox Christian theology refers to the complementery nature of the Emperor and the Orthodox Patriarch who ideally work together in perfect harmony for the sake of Holy Rus.

87 Another possibility is the mobilization of the transnational religious community by religious organizations to oppose the religio-populist leader, like the Gülen movement in Turkey that initially allied with the AKP but was ultimately crushed by Erdogan who accused the gulenists of the failed coup against the regime in July 2016.

88 D. Fossati and M. Mietzner, ‘Analyzing Indonesia’s Populist Electorate: Demographic, Ideological, and Attitudinal Trends’, Asian Survey, 59:5 (2019), pp. 769–794.

89 Both have the support of their national Catholic clergy, which leads to an open conflict with the Vatican. I. Krastev, ‘The Pope vs. the Populists’, The New York Times, 2 May 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/02/opinion/catholics-poland-hungary-populists-pope-francis.html.

90 O. Kiyan, ‘White Nationalism in the United States and Russia: Transnational Ties, Domestic Impact’, Harvard International Review, 29 April 2021, https://hir.harvard.edu/white-nationalism-in-the-united-states-and-russia-transnational-ties-domestic-impact/.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Jocelyne Cesari

Jocelyne Cesari holds the Chair of Religion and Politics at the University of Birmingham (UK) and is Senior Fellow at the Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs at Georgetown University. Since 2018, she is the T. J. Dermot Dunphy Visiting Professor of Religion, Violence, and Peacebuilding at Harvard Divinity School.