New land use planning for Tibetan villages in China based on traditional spatial patterns

ABSTRACT

The paradox between massive rural revitalisation and cultural preservation calls for new sustainable development strategies. How to strike a balance between them has become a research hotspot especially for traditional villages in developing countries. Through data collection, field research and analogy, this article explores the spatial prototypes of mandala, Mount Meru and ‘zhai xin’ (central stronghold) concept, and points out the coupling relationship between spatial patterns and Tibetan settlements and its influences on settlement layout, architectural forms, and local customs, which includes the cultural philosophy of spatial patterns, the structure of human settlements, village layout, road network planning, and core node building complex. Taking Ge’en Tibetan Village revamping program in Aba Tibetan and Qiang County as an illustrative example, this design strategy will not only improve local residents’ living standards, but also helps to retain the cultural essence of traditional villages, thereby diving the development of tourism and other tertiary industries. Based on cultural heritage preservation, this work offers new perspectives on land use planning and architectural design for the revitalisation and sustainable development of traditional village in under-developed areas.

KEYWORDS:

• Rural construction
• spatial pattern
• Tibetan
• traditional village
• central stronghold

1. Introduction

With massive urbanisation and industrialisation in China, paradox between fast modernisation and cultural preservation arouses challenges on new insights into green construction and sustainable development strategies nationwide (Ballatore et al., 2018). The rapid social-economic development inevitably intrigues a growing disparity between the lifestyle of traditional villages and the modern lifestyle (Khayum et al., 2020). In order to improve the residents’ living standard in traditional villages and in the meantime effectively protect the local traditional architectural heritage and culture, it is necessary to efficiently integrate the local folk customs and religious culture in the process of rural revitalisation, so as to organically combine the suitable renovation of traditional villages with urbanisation (Dong & Hong, 2013).

It has been increasingly important to protect and revitalise traditional architecture and cultural heritage by fully showcasing the cultural identity of traditional ethnic villages themselves (Erdemir et al., 2021; Henry et al., 2020; Z. Liu et al., 2021). To integrate modernisation in the process of protecting and revitalising traditional villages will not only improve residents’ life but also infuse new vitality into traditional villages, thus promoting tourism and the sustainable development of traditional villages, which is of great significance in promoting the internal economic cycle of the country (Pavanello et al., 2021). China is a multi-ethnic country of long history, and different ethnic groups have their own cultural symbols and cultural heritage buildings to be preserved, making each region unique in their own ways, therefore providing multitude of research subjects and potential for the protection of architectural heritage (Hao et al., 2019).

Over the past few years, there has been a significant increase in studies on topics such as architectural heritage conservation, sustainable land use planning, construction renovation, old city regeneration and rural revitalisation (Knittel et al., 2020). Kontokosta et al., (2020). argued that the protection of traditional ethnic architecture and culture is a very important concern in the process of urban development, and emphasised that the organic integration of traditional ethnic culture into modernisation, so as to resuscitate new vitality. X. Wang et al., (2021). utilised the space – time statistical method and provided a basis for heritage protection for various countries and regions. Liao et al., (2023). further explored the spatial structure and influencing factors of Chinese modern architectural heritage resources, which serves as an important reference for their protection and sustainable use.

H. Y. Luo, (2019) and C. S. Lee et al., (2020). analysed the dilemma of heritage protection and focused more on social influence in the process of rural revitalisation. (S. S. Wang et al., 2020). summarised the current situation of domestic vernacular architectural heritage protection and suggested the direction for future research after comparing with researches on architectural heritage protection abroad. Kee et al (Kee & Chau, 2020). explored the external effects of adaptive reusing of cultural heritage, especially its social and economic benefits. Then (Rong & Bahauddin, (2023). pointed out that the restoration and reuse of architectural heritage can effectively preserve vernacular architecture and cultural narratives in the context of the sustainable development strategy of traditional architecture. (C. Lee et al., (2018). indicated that architectural heritage can facilitate economic dynamics of the heritage site while shaping the identity of the community in the meantime, and the preservation of architectural heritage and the preservation of its economic dynamics are inseparable.

Furthermore, a variety of scholars have dedicated to regional and local rural development with emphasis on architectural heritage conservation and construction development in a much broader range of perspectives (Ding et al., 2022; Hadavi & Pasdarshahri, 2021; Zhang, Cenci, Becue, & Koutra, 2022; Zhang, Cenci, Becue, Koutra, & Liao, 2022). (Zhan et al., (2022). offered a comprehensive spatial distribution analysis of China’s rural tourist towns, which provides a reference for the construction of rural tourist towns in other countries. Xie et al., (2022). summarised the law of rural development and pinpointed the influencing factors of rural tourism. Gkartzios et al., (2020). proposed reflections towards an inclusive rural social science in which the term ‘rural’ should be replaced with more nuanced options in other languages. (Koutra et al., (2023). focuses on key issues and challenges in former industrialised areas. (K. Xie et al., (2024). suggested a more balanced cultural – modern rural revitalisation approach for traditional villages in plateau region in China.

In 2009, the International Research Center for the Protection and Restoration of Cultural Heritage published the ‘Manual of Living Heritage Conservation Methods’, which views heritage as a ‘cultural process’. Rural traditional dwellings and settlements have a dual nature of being both ‘heritage’ and ‘residences’. They serve as material carriers of multiple values such as historical culture and artistic skills, while also providing living spaces (World Heritage Centre, 2009). On the other hand, there are a great many researches on the study of Tibetan culture and spatial patterns. Sir E.H. Gombrich’s ‘Art and Illusion’ proposes the concept of ‘paradigms’, which has a guiding role in contemporary spatial research (Sir, 2004). Wu Hung’s ‘Space in Art History’, ‘The Double Screen: Media and Representation in Chinese Painting’ and ‘Feminine Space in Chinese Painting’ illustrate that space does not derive from images but exists in images and are made of images (B. Z. Chen, 2023). In ‘The Production of Space’, Henri Lefebvre further argues that space is a social product, or a complex social constructed based on values and social production of meaning, which affects spatial practices and perceptions.

Mandala features prominently in Tibetan culture and serve as a cultural motif both religiously and artistically. In ‘Mandalas of Tibetan Buddhism’ by Tenzin Longdok Nima, the structures and proportional relationships of over sixty mandala images are precisely analysed using geometric measurements. Works such as Chen’s ‘Silence and Wrath: Tibetan Buddhist Cultural Art’, Luo’s ‘Dragon Robe and Kasaya’, and Chen’s ‘Sacred Space: Spatial Factors in Medieval Religion’ elaborate on Tibetan Buddhism’s influence on art, culture and, more specifically, spatial layout of residential settlements in Tibet (M. Chen et al., 2021; Luo, 2005).

In recent years, there has been a rapid growth of traditional Tibetan villages revamping programs in China (Li et al., 2024). Based on classifications of traditional Tibetan villages, ethnic makeup, and construction techniques, some scholars have proposed strategies for protection and optimisation design (Qi et al., 2019; Song & Wang, 2019; S. W. Zhang et al., 2018). Some other scholars believe that traditional spatial patterns can provide methods for the design of public spaces in rural areas (Qi et al., 2019). Some scholars pointed out that the influence of factors such as highways and expressways on the spatial characteristics of Tibetan villages needs to be considered (Kochan, 2015). It has become increasingly common to analyse spatial layout and characteristics of traditional village by collecting data from the UAV and integrate visualisation technology into the protection and renewal of traditional villages (N. L. Xie & Cheng, 2023). The layout and architectural form of traditional village are determined by the geo-graphical location and internal rules, which are formed throughout the history and embraced by the community. Other scholars have focused on cultural tourism, arguing that ethnic culture, architectural technology and artistic elements contribute to the revival of traditional villages, as well as residential renovation and tourism development planning in the old city (Jin et al., 2022; Sun & Zhang, 2018). Some scholars further argue that industrial development and tourism are key for the protection and poverty alleviation of traditional villages in developing countries (W. J. Wang et al., 2023).

Even though existing studies offers various concepts, methods and ideas on how modern architectural technology should be applied in construction and urban planning with comprehensive consideration from social, technical, economic and cultural perspectives, much attention has been paid to new constructions in developed regions while under-developed regions in developing countries, such as high-altitude ethnic regions are more likely to be left behind. As the research roadmap shows (Figure 1), this article tries to extract the spatial prototypes of traditional Tibetan patterns and investigate the general rules on how spatial patterns are projected onto the real world, and applies them to the design practice of rural revitalisation practices in Tibetan settlements in Sichuan. It explores how to integrate modern architectural technology into the protection and renovation plan of architectural heritage in a culturally holistic way, reshape the increasingly dwindling cultural landscape of rural areas, and strike a balance between modernisation and cultural protection in traditional rural areas with unique regional culture and ethnic styles in the context of China’s sweeping urbanisation and modernisation.

Figure 1. Research roadmap of this study.

Taking Ge’en Tibetan Village revamping program in Aba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture as illustrative example, this article proposes land use planning and design strategies for rural revitalisation and protection practices in Tibetan settlements of Sichuan Province, China, which aim at not only improving the local residents’ living standards, refining living environment, but also fully retaining the cultural essence of traditional villages, thereby improving tourism development and other related tertiary sector industries. This article provides new insights into architectural design and land use planning for traditional villages’ revitalisation practices with emphasis on cultural heritage protection, and demonstrates a typical application example in western plateau area, which will have a lasting impact on facilitating the high-level development of new countryside initiative.

2. Conception and methodology

2.1. Spatial pattern planning approach

In the long history of Chinese traditional patterns, a vast vocabulary of pattern symbols has been accumulated. Among them, the ‘two-dimensional spatial patterns’ that express spatial attributes have been continuously inherited and developed, becoming a paradigm of shared visual cognition. The spatial elements constituted or symbolised by patterns subjectively map the real material space, with elements of surreal imagination and fiction, and represent the refined and sublimated version of physical space. From a spatial dimension, settlements are human habitats in different regions, while from a temporal dimension, settlements are human habitats in different periods. Settlements are not only a concept of systemic space but also a complex economic and cultural phenomenon. The Mandala pattern and the Mount Meru pattern in Chinese traditional patterns have a profound influence on the formation and development of Tibetan settlements and architecture (Shi et al., 2022).

Whether it is the ancient Indian territorial symbols or the mandala-esque buildings used in religious ceremonies, such as the Vastu Purusha Mandala in Brahmanism, the Manduka Mandala and Paramasayika Mandala in Hinduism, or the Vajradhatu Mandala and Garbhakosa Mandala in Buddhism, they all represent the perfect configuration of ‘aggregated’ spatial meaning. They share the common characteristics of harmony, rationality, and order, and are materialised as altar-like buildings that depict the gathering of deities, evoking awe and admiration for the vastness and greatness of the universe (Figure 2). Early Asian temple settlements, such as the Angkor Wat and Bakheng Temple in Cambodia, usually undergo comprehensive planning and layout. Once the pattern form is determined, the overall layout must correspond precisely to it. Temples or central buildings rise prominently to form iconic landmarks, with the layout converging from the surrounding areas towards the centre. This simple planning concept has been passed down to the present day (Dong & Hong, 2013, Hao et al., 2019).

Figure 2. Analogy between image and space planning for temple design.

The Mount Meru pattern is a tangible embodiment of ancient people’s cosmological and cyclical beliefs. Horizontally, Mount Meru dominates as the central space, surrounded by nine mountains and eight seas, with the Iron Enclosure Mountain and the Great Vihara Sea on the outermost periphery, and the four directions representing the four continents. Materialised settlements often employ circular symbolism, with pillars or trees erected at the centre of architectural clusters to symbolise Mount Meru as the axis of the universe (Zacharias et al., 2013). In the Rigveda, the term ‘pillar’ or ‘tree trunk’ is used, as pillars, trees, or mountains serve as bridges connecting the secular and cosmic realms. The erected umbrella symbolises the invisible axis of the universe, around which all things revolve. When materialised into architecture, it takes the form of a cross-shaped main axis, with the connecting lines of the four corners serving as secondary axes. Gates or steps are placed along the main axis, such as the Sanchi Stupa and the Buddhist Golden Tower in Thailand, while small towers or stupas are placed along the secondary axes. The outermost ring corridor serves as a place for circumambulation or holding prayer ceremonies.

2.2. Coupling relationship between spatial pattern and physical space

Many Tibetan settlements in China, based on the design blueprint of the Sanye Temple, are constructed according to the layout of the mandala pattern recorded in the ancient Indian Vedas. The architecture and settlements have a rigorous patterned spatial structure and mathematical proportional relationship (Q. Liu et al., 2019; Nomura et al., 2018). The spatial composition of the Vajradhatu Mandala and Garbhakosa Mandala patterns share common features of emphasising the core, having a cross-shaped dual axis, and enclosing boundaries. The Garbhakosa Mandala pattern also has the characteristic of a multi-layered overlapping in the shape of the Chinese character ‘回’ (hui). The Mount Meru pattern has multiple circular features with an absolute centre and diverse boundaries, with symbolic clusters strengthening this spatial characteristic.

Unlike Tibetan architectural settlements like the Sanye Temple, where there is a relatively precise measurement relationship, the Tibetan settlements in Aba, Sichuan Province have a complex terrain with gullies crisscrossing, significant differences in elevation, and a variety of natural landscapes coexisting. The harsh climate, inconvenient transportation, and limited material conditions make it impossible to calculate the spatial coupling relationship and positioning points with precise numbers. The overall mountain-water pattern of these settlements is on a macro scale, reflecting a relative proportional relationship, similar to the ‘power’ emphasised in classical Chinese gardens, which focuses on the overall trend and relationship of the landscape (Gao & Wu, 2017).

The southwestern region of China is characterised by the coexistence and integration of multiple ethnic groups, such as the Tibetan, Naxi, Dong, and Miao ethnic groups. The concept of ‘Zhai Xin’ (‘寨心’, in Chinese), which means ‘central stronghold’, is commonly found in the construction of ethnic settlements in these regions. The ‘central stronghold’ refers to the region or area within a settlement or architectural cluster that has a commanding and controlling influence over the entire spatial layout. It serves as the focal point of collective cultural memory for the residents. The central stronghold can be located at the geometric centre of the area or at a prominent area such as a high point, a low-lying open area, or the main entrance or exit of the settlement.

As Figure 3 shows, the spatial prototype of ‘zhai xin’ and the mandala pattern, Mount Sumeru pattern, and other spatial patterns have certain common features, such as clear hierarchy, inclusiveness of square and circle, and the combination of lotus-shaped patterns. In the core hall of the residential buildings or fortresses of ethnic groups such as the Tibetan, Miao, and Dong in the southwestern region of China, a thick pillar, called the ‘central pillar’, is erected in the central position (Wu et al., 2023). The central pillar is the starting point of the entire wooden structure and the foundation of the overall structure, commanding the entire space of the house. In the concept of Tibetan culture, each family, village, and clan settlement are viewed as a ‘world’, and different levels of worlds constitute the bigger world and the universe. This ideological concept is usually interpreted and developed through concentric space. The central pillar’s thickness and height often exceed the needs of the structure itself, and it is individually decorated and worshipped. Some are painted on the outside, some are wrapped in hada, and some are hung with ox horns, symbolising the ‘axis of the world’ in the family unit. In their leisure time, the residents rotate clockwise or worship around the central pillar, believing that the souls of the deceased will ascend to the kingdom of heaven along the central pillar.

Figure 3. Core-concentrated spatial design manor in traditional villages in China.

3. Illustrative application

3.1. Spatial morphology of Tibetan settlements in Aba, Sichuan

The ideal prototype of the Tibetan settlements in Aba, Sichuan, is to be backed by a large mountain, with rolling hills and small rivers flowing on both sides, converging in front and surrounding the central area (Li et al., 2023). The external space of the settlement has good enclosure, with the ridges on both sides extending outward to form a hugging but not suffocating layout. This prominent and inwardly centred feeling, presented in the form of mandala, Mount Meru, and Pure Land patterns, is combined with the simple concepts of worshiping nature, adapting to nature, taking advantage of the mountains, and the totemic beliefs of being close to the sacred mountains, as well as the traditional Feng Shui culture from Eastern Central China, influencing the site selection and layout of the settlements. Similar to the site selection ideas of the Han Chinese settlements, Tibetan settlements in Sichuan typically adopt a ‘mountain-oriented’ layout, incorporating the relationship between mountains and water into the pattern formation, presenting a macro spatial layout. The Tibetan settlement areas in Sichuan are characterised by high and rugged mountains, making it impossible to strictly adhere to the pattern in the construction of settlements. The pattern concept is flexibly applied in the layout of the settlements, with less emphasis on geometric perfection and more on the balance of spatial proportions and relative relationships. Representative Tibetan settlements include: the Baiyu Monastery Tibetan settlements and the Gatuo Monastery Tibetan settlement in Baiyu County, the Wuming Buddhist Academy Tibetan settlement in Seda County, and the Gengqing Town Tibetan settlement in Dege County, Sichuan. In summary, the settlements exhibit new characteristics in the process of integration and evolution (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Bird eye views on land use planning of cultural-diverse Tibetan villages.

• From planar patterns to ‘Shan Shui’ (‘山水’, in Chinese, means mountain and water) landscape patterns. The settlements are located in a mountain and water environment, adopting a ‘mountain-oriented’ layout that incorporates the relationship between mountains and water into the spatial pattern composition, forming a more macro spatial layout.

• ‘Patterned space’ is not equal to ‘patterned architecture’. Although the spatial patterned architectural complexes in India and Southeast Asia are grand in scale and consist of numerous individual buildings, they are highly singular in function. The Tibetan settlements in Aba, Sichuan, encompass a variety of functions, allocating larger spaces for secular activities rather than purely ‘patterned architectural spaces’.

• Flexible application of spatial pattern thinking in settlement layout. However, due to the high and rugged mountains in the Tibetan settlements of Aba, Sichuan, it is not feasible to strictly construct large-scale settlements according to spatial patterns. Construction is often done with adaptive choices, focusing less on geometric perfection and more on spatial balance in terms of proportions and relative relationships.

• Compound spatial attributes and cultural integration. Under the overall ‘cosmic view’ principle of spatial pattern thinking, the Tibetan settlements in Aba, Sichuan, exhibit the characteristics of the integration of multiple regional and ethnic cultures.

• The high point of the settlement is the focal point where lines of sight and behavioural activities converge. As a commanding architectural feature, the multi-core reunifying nature has created heterogeneous and cohesive spatial characteristics within the homogeneous settlement.

3.2. Current problems and optimization strategies

Ge’en Tibetan Village is located in the Huanglong-Mounigou Scenic and Historic Interest Area and the UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in Songpan County, Aba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture, Sichuan Province, China (Figure 5). It is situated 20 kilometres west of the county town. The village covers a total area of 35 square kilometres and is connected to National Highway 213. It consists of two village groups and seven production units, with a current population of 486 people living in 218 households. On 31 August 2022, Ge’en Tibetan Village was included in the fifth batch of traditional village lists in Sichuan Province, representing a typical traditional Tibetan village in a high-altitude mountainous river valley.

Figure 5. Location map of Ge’en Tibetan village in Songpan County, Sichuan, China.

When Ge’en Tibetan Village was established, there were only around 20 households. It has gone through the rule of local chieftains, the transformation from an agricultural and pastoral village to a collective village after liberation, and now the population has grown from decline to prosperity, resulting in continuous changes in the village’s form. Currently, there are 136 buildings in the village, mainly residential buildings, all adopting the unique two-story sloping roof stone and wood structure typical of the Tibetan ethnic group in western Sichuan. Historical buildings, including the scripture hall, lama tower, firewood storage tower, water mill, and chieftain’s residence, are scattered throughout the village along with village lanes and clusters of ancient trees. However, these buildings are not organised systematically, making it difficult to provide suitable spaces for cultural activities and leisure in the village (Figure 6). The newly constructed village entrance parking lot, village committee office building, and public toilets are crowded and disorganised due to conflicting functional planning. In recent years, during the process of self-organised renewal projects, the appearance of some modern-style new buildings and residential buildings with industrial red tile roofs has disrupted the spatial layout and texture of the Tibetan village itself. These issues need to be addressed in future designs for the transformation of the village into a beautiful rural area.

Figure 6. Practical images of current spatial design problems in Ge’en Village.

The protection plan for Ge’en Tibetan Village should involve natural geography, settlement evolution, spatial form, ethnic culture, historical traditions, craftsmanship, and lifestyle. The rural protection and renovation design, based on traditional spatial patterns, connects each household into a cohesive unit, following the terrain with a main road and multiple branching lanes, organically dispersing along contour lines to form a patchy, layered layout structure. This approach connects the material space, protects and restores the ecological form of the settlement, strengthens the original style and features of the traditional settlement, thereby driving industrial transformation and development, and continuing the inheritance of rural cultural heritage.

The overall appearance of Ge’en Tibetan Village is kept relatively good, and the design only involves partial enhancements to newly constructed buildings, iconic village spaces, and wall decorations. As Figure 7 indicates, the overall rural design includes: the transformation of idle residences and the integration of surrounding environments (prototype room design for guesthouse transformation, phased construction for 15 households), parking lots, riverfront landscape paths and lighting projects, mill waterway rectification (200 metres of waterway and fortifications), riverbank flood protection fortifications (1 kilometre); core settlement space design includes: prayer halls and front squares, village gate archways, relief walls, village entrance road landscapes, intersection signage, village entrance corridor bridges, village cultural learning centres, mill protection and expansion, village entrance public toilet renovations; settlement space structure and boundary design includes: village road system renovations, scenic entry platforms, activity node spaces, parking lots, and a village loop trail (2 kilometres).

Figure 7. Overall land use planning strategies for rural renovation in Ge’en Village.

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Road network restructure

The spatial entities that the villagers worship include mountains, lakes, temples, walls, pagodas, and Buddha statues, with the road network and public space system of the settlement serving as the conduit of their activities. This spatial framework may appear irregular, but it is not a result of natural formation. The directional aspects of the traditional Tibetan patterns are usually expressed through specific symbolic objects and colours, and roads are typically not represented. The road network design can be seen as a separate representation of the pattern’s materialisation, however, the characteristics of the roads in terms of linearity, nodes, and plane forms more intuitively reflect the dynamic features of the pattern’s rotation and circulation. The functional spaces that constitute the boundaries, core, and clusters of the settlement are formed by the combination of various material settlement elements. The spatial contours are much more complex than the graphical expression of the pattern, and the material composition elements are not dependent on conceptual ideas or pattern arrangements but are determined by the outer outlines of the buildings at the edge of the settlement and their positional relationships.

The road network in Ge’en Tibetan Village takes the form of main and secondary arteries. The road network connects small religious clusters and residential clusters, naturally forming an interlocking spatial structure that gradually fractals. The clusters are distributed along the main arteries in a belt-like and clustered manner. The early roads in the village were formed by human and animal footsteps, following the natural terrain and integrating with the architecture and the surrounding environment, without distinct shapes and boundaries. The redesign respects this naturalness. Without strict road hierarchies, the linear plane of the road system varies and twists based on road width, the undulations of the terrain and the complexity of the environment. The main roads are connected to the prayer hall and Lama Tower, forming public activity spaces within the settlement and serving as boundaries between the spiritual and secular areas. The main and secondary roads surrounding the settlement bend and twist moderately, complemented by newly added scenic wooden walkways and village viewing platforms, forming a complete closed-loop boundary.

Newly added roads are often opened in positions that follow or are perpendicular to contour lines, connecting buildings and the environment into a well-connected small system. Road intersections are formed by the junction of main and secondary roads, activity areas, and parking lots, with intersections primarily taking the form of crosses, offset crosses, Y-shapes, L-shapes, and T-shapes (Figure 8). Cross-shaped intersections are very rare and are mostly formed in conjunction with activity areas and parking lots. At the intersections of main and secondary roads, T-shaped and Y-shaped intersections are usually formed to accommodate sudden changes in terrain direction and slope. When the external environment is restricted and one direction cannot be extended, the intersection is adjusted to an L-shaped space node.

Figure 8. Main streamline types of local-adaptive road transportation layout.

Secondary roads, due to terrain limitations, are often narrower and typically serve as access roads to individual households. These roads are mostly dead ends, which lead directly to the front gates of courtyards or the cultivated farmland and pastures behind the settlement. The road system extends from simple to complex, influencing the layout and scale of buildings, and has distinct directional characteristics:

• The road network layout of Ge’en Tibetan Village is based on three main arteries, which give rise to numerous secondary branch roads, and these branch roads further branch out into smaller branches, presenting a clear tree-like structure.

• The road network layout of Ge’en Tibetan Village radiates from the central space, with numerous secondary branch roads branching out due to the overall topographical conditions, exhibiting a radial pattern.

• Parking lots are new functional infrastructure in the modern development of Ge’en Tibetan Village. Before the advent of cars, the parking of vehicles such as animal-drawn carts and human-powered carts was free, flexible, and informal. Therefore, the traditional road system did not reserve land for parking lots. The design of parking lots combines with some original roads and activity areas.

4.2. Cultural-based layout revival

The prototype of spatial patterns has been constantly revived and evolved throughout history, making it impossible to completely restore the original appearance and all details of historical buildings. In addition to the cultural dimension of spatial ‘prototypes’ undergoing interpretive transformation and periodic revival, other functional characteristics have undergone drastic changes to adapt to new social and human needs. The daily activities of Ge’en Tibetan Village residents, such as spinning prayer wheels, dancing traditional Guozhuang, and celebrating Linka Festival, can be regarded as an ever-changing process of cultural recreation and transformation, as well as the periodic revival of the prototype of spatial patterns in the new era. The refinement of the ‘prototype’ must strike the right balance in order to maximise the symbolic role of space. If it is too abstract or dissimilar, it may fail to trigger associations. Conversely, if it is too similar, it may appear shallow and vulgar.

The spatial prototype of the traditional Mandala and Mount Meru pattern is reflected in the spatial form of the settlement, with the most prominent being the ‘growth points’ of the social core and living nodes of the settlement. In the enclosed and narrow space between mountains and rivers, these ‘growth points’ are manifested in the form of temples, religious facilities, and watchtowers. Combined with the concept of ‘zhai xin’ (central stronghold), various elements such as distinctive places or buildings, activity areas, prayer paths, main roads, religious buildings, and ritual facilities are integrated at the entrance of the settlement, the geometric centre, the highest point of the skyline, and the low-lying open areas. They gather most of the economic elements, controlling the texture, structure, location, spatial development, and overall form of the settlement.

In the historical process, Ge’en Tibetan Village has always followed the spatial pattern of the three concentric circles of gods, humans, and fields. In the process of design and renovation, the planning is based on the prototype of the Mandala and Mount Meru patterns (Figure 9). The settlement is connected by four diverging branches formed by the river channels and mountain terrain, with the prayer activities linking the core points of the prayer hall and the Lama tower village, thus gathering economy, vitality, and popularity.

Figure 9. Schematic diagram of three concentric circles in Ge’en Village.

The ‘axis line’ of the spatial direction is formed by connecting the core points and adjacent important nodes. The prayer hall and the square with inscribed walls, the Lama tower, the village cultural learning centre, and the Mani stone corridor bridge form the north-south axis. Starting from the village gate, the east-west axis is formed by the transformed water mill experience hall, Tibetan barley restaurant, surrounding shops, the entrance platform of the landscape suspension bridge, newly added Mani stone piles, newly added relief walls, village viewing platform, and wooden walkway. The intersection of the two axes is located at the prayer hall. This architectural cluster centred around the village core is coupled with the spatial structure of the core of the Vajradhatu Mandala pattern. It is the gathering place for the flow of people, goods, and information in the Tibetan village, forming a commanding presence in the space with a dense mix of functions, the most open space and the largest scale of buildings. The residential clusters have the largest proportion in terms of scale, expanding and developing around the growth points along the axis. Residential buildings surround the activity square, which is used for parking and grain drying activities.

As Figure 10 shows, in the traditional patterned space, the boundaries can be both clear demarcation lines and places where natural landscapes and cultural landscapes blend together. The settlement is a morphological collection of the relationship between the real and the virtual. The solid boundaries are usually formed by elements such as walls, eaves, and roads. The residential buildings, courtyard walls, newly added mountain trails around the farmland, and the surrounding mountain boundaries together form the solid boundaries of the settlement. The natural boundaries are defined vaguely by the transition of natural elements or the open area, including mountain embankments, drastic changes in terrain elevation, water lines in terraced fields, vegetation lines, farmland surrounding the buildings, and pastures. The mountains and rivers that surround the settlement forms the natural boundary.

Figure 10. Spatial relationships among axis, cores and boundaries in traditional patterned space.

4.3. Crucial public sites relocation

In the early days of Tibetan Buddhism, spaces were constructed to accommodate Buddha statues based on the prototype of the mandala spatial pattern. Circumambulation paths were set around the square space where the Buddha statue was placed, and walls were built to separate and define other outdoor functions. Roofs were added to form a surrounding corridor, eventually evolving into the architectural form known as ‘Dugang-style’. The residential buildings in Ge’en Tibetan Village largely maintain a square circular plan based on this paradigm. The front facade features a wooden cantilevered eaves gallery combined with a broken stone wall, while the other three sides are constructed with broken stones as well. The roofs are sloped and have no fixed form, varying in shape from hipped roofs to suspended roofs, freely combined according to the layout. Small green tiles are used for roof covering, and the interior space of the roof serves as storage space, partially enclosed and partially open.

In recent years, some newly built residential buildings have adopted modern red tile roofs, glass ceilings, and tiled facades. The design respects and restores the layout of the ‘Dugang-style’ pattern prototype, using traditional materials and craftsmanship to replace the current red tiles with slate roofs or small green tiles, following the combination of wooden cantilevered beams and broken stone construction. Tibetan-style insulated windows and doors are chosen to replace modern-style components, improving the thermal comfort of the residential buildings and unifying the facade materials and colour aesthetics. The newly constructed buildings in Ge’en Tibetan Village are centred around the prayer hall, creating a ‘zhai xin’ space. Specific locations for service facilities are selected with considerations on the functions of iconic public buildings and the overall spatial layout. The prayer hall, pagoda, and Weisang (burning incense) stove are all historical buildings and the core of the settlement’s patterned space. The design focuses on repairing and reinforcing these buildings in their original form, with necessary additions (Figure 11). The prayer hall is the most important core building in the village, blending Tibetan and Han styles. The main facade has no windows or walls, while the side facades are constructed with broken stone walls. It has a width of three bays and a depth of one bay, with a hall-type structure, a single-sloped hipped roof, and a miniature single-sloped roofed Buddha hall in the centre, surrounded by prayer wheels. The design aims to preserve the integrity of the prayer hall’s structure, replacing or reinforcing damaged wooden components and restoring identifiable decorative elements. The pagoda and Weisang stove are well-preserved and only require facade maintenance and renovation.

Figure 11. Crucial new construction of public buildings (rendering by authors).

The design suggests demolishing the cluttered space in front of the hall and transforming it into a square, with a screen wall installed. On the east side of the prayer hall, Mani stone stacks and prayer flags are added, creating a complete and open sequence of ceremonial spaces. This addition also complements the Lama tower on the west side, completing the symmetrical cross pattern symbolising the mandala. The daily clockwise ritual activities of the villagers (burning incense, worshipping Buddha, offering prayers, circumambulating, and gathering) form an activated spatial pattern in the dimension of time. The village entrance corridor bridge is an important node on the north-south axis of the patterned space. Due to historical reasons, it disappeared. As the only passage for villagers to leave the village, it is one of the carriers of ‘original memory’. The design aims to recreate the corridor bridge as a place for villagers to relax and engage. In the meantime, it can also serve as the temporary market of agricultural products for villagers. The architectural form adopts the common double-roofed covered bridge structure in the western Sichuan region. Considering the traffic, the middle lane is for vehicles, with pedestrian walkways and seats with wooden railings on both sides, providing a space for villagers to rest and communicate.

4.4. Typical new constructions

The newly added village cultural learning centre (village history museum) is the northern node of the north-south axis of the patterned space, providing a space for villagers and tourists for activities and cultural exhibitions, including a public library, activity rooms for the middle-aged and elderly, village historical and cultural exhibitions, and red culture displays (Figure 12). The design follows the downward slope of the entrance highway into the village, with the building facing the direction of the village gate. It adopts a low-key approach to weaken the volume of the building and integrate it into the site environment. The height gradually decreases from west to east, abstractly interpreting the architectural style of the Tibetan watchtowers in western Sichuan. The exterior walls are decorated with rough stone materials. The architectural form of the cultural learning centre connects and integrates with the sculptural landscape wall at the village entrance, with the main entrance facing the village entrance corridor bridge and echoing the square at the other end, enhancing the sense of enclosure and the commanding presence of the core patterned space. The open roof serves as a resting platform, where villagers can rest and communicate while gradually ascending through the roof slope and enjoy the view in the distance.

Figure 12. New public buildings design in Ge’en village (rendering by authors).

The water mill is the eastern node of the east-west axis of the patterned space, echoing the Mani stone stacks and prayer flags across the river. The design inherits the original architectural layout, preserving the beams, roof, grindstone, and water channel of the water mill. Reinforcement and renovation are carried out in the more dangerous areas on the side of the river, creating a heritage exhibition and experience area for the grinding and processing craftsmanship of the water mill. Additional exhibition and sales functions are added to the side of the entrance and the back of the water mill. The building follows the terrain with segmented layers, allowing visitors to explore the intangible cultural heritage exhibits and purchase Tibetan barley souvenirs. The added section at the back serves as a Tibetan barley food experience area, where visitors can taste Tibetan barley food, promoting cultural continuity and the integration of industries. The resting platform in the experience area is also the starting point of the village tour trail, where visitors can walk along the wooden trail to explore the fields, houses, and distant mountains, forming the boundary between human habitation and farm-land in the patterned space, together with the village entrance viewing platform and the trail.

5. Conclusions

As a ‘living’ heritage, traditional villages should not only be protected, but also be regenerated and revitalised. This study reveals a great many obstacles in the process of revamping traditional villages in western China, among which the key challenge is how to effectively integrate local customs and ethnic culture with improving the living standards of residents in traditional villages, and effectively protecting traditional architectural heritage and culture. The study of the coupling relationship between spatial patterns and architectural settlements is emerging yet not fully explored, which offers a unique approach for the planning and design of traditional village revitalisation and land use planning practices.

Different from traditional villages in Tibet, the coupling relationship between the mandala pattern, Mount Sumeru pattern, and the spatial prototype of ‘zhai xin’(central stronghold), which is common among southwest China, and their material counterparts in Aba, Sichuan, has its own unique rules and characteristics. It does not dwell on precise numerical proportions and geometric perfection, but rather focus more on the relative relation between settlements and mountains and rivers around them, making it grander in scale, more complex in structure, and subtler in relation, which not only helps us better understand the spatial patterns of traditional Tibetan settlements in Aba, Sichuan, and but also provides a cultural basis for their protection, renewal, and revitalisation practices.

In the case of the Ge’en Tibetan Village revitalisation practice, it should be noted that: (1) the village layout planning cannot directly copy a certain ‘pattern’ or ‘paradigm’. Ge’en Tibetan Village’s cross axis and three circular spaces are inspired by the mandala pattern but not strictly identical due to landscape conditions and historical changes; (2) the site selection and design of the core node buildings, including the prayer hall, Lama towers, village cultural learning centre, corridor bridge, solidifies the ‘zhai xin’(central stronghold) concept; (3) the road network restructuring design further illustrates the spatial pattern with emphasis on improving residents’ living standards; (4) the integration of modern architectural technology and traditional Jiarong Tibetan culture is of great importance, with the village cultural learning centre and the water mill adopting Jiarong Tibetan building materials, architectural styles, and decorative patterns.

Due to the fact that the renovation and renewal work of Ge’en Tibetan Village is currently in the initial stage of implementation, evaluation data on construction effectiveness and usage can only be obtained after the project is fully completed and used for a period of time in the future. The differences in ethnic culture, customs, living standards, architectural forms, and building materials may result in the specific design details provided not being applicable to all situations. These limitations have also sparked further research in the future. Cultural heritance is not about replicating historical relics or reviving vanished history of the so-called good old days, but rather about reinterpreting regional culture in a way that is adaptable to contemporary society based on respect for history. In the future, the protection and revitalisation of traditional villages will require more new design ideas and application models.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Kai Xie: Conceptualisation, Methodology, Writing – original draft

Yin Zhang: Simulation, Validation, Supervision, Writing-review and editing

Wenyang Han: Investigation, Visualisation, Writing-review and editing

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Data availability statement

Data will be available on request.

Additional information

Funding

This work is financed by Introduction of Talent Research Initiation Fund Project (No. RQD2022030), Sichuan Science and Technology Research Program [No. 2022NSFSC1081] and Central University Basic Research Business Fee Special Fund Project [No. 2022SQN05].