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Abstract
The Gaza Strip is a territory of 365 square kilometres located in the southern coastal plain of Palestine. Distinguished by a long, narrow spatial form and named after its main metropolis, the city of Gaza, it forms a political entity whose formal status has not been determined since its formation in the 1948 War. The aim of this article is to explore the circumstances in which the Gaza Strip was formed as an allegedly provisional geopolitical entity that has survived for over 70 years. It will concentrate on the formative period between the allocation of British Mandate Palestine’s southern coastal strip to a prospective Arab state by the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) in September 1947 and the signing in February 1950 of the Modus Vivendi agreement between Egypt and Israel that had finally delineated an armistice line that forms Gaza Strip’s boundary with Israel until recently.
Keywords:
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
1 C. Dahlman and Gearóid Ó Tuathail, ’Bosnia’s Third Space? Nationalist Separatism and International Supervision in Bosnia’s Brčko District’, Geopolitics, Vol. 11, (2006), pp.651-52.
2 S. Arieli, The Truman Institute Atlas of the Jewish–Arab Conflict (Jerusalem: Truman Institute, 2020), pp.28-31.
3 On the demarcation of the 1906 boundary see J. Burman, ’British Strategic Interests versus Ottoman Sovereign Rights: New Perspectives on the Aqaba Crisis, 1906’, The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, Vol. 37, (2009), pp.275-92.
4 K. Eder, ’Europe’s Borders: The Narrative Construction of the Boundaries of Europe’, European Journal of Social Theory, Vol. 9, (2006), pp.255–56; on the Turkish case, see E. J. Zürcher, ’The Vocabulary of Muslim Nationalism’, International Journal of the Sociology of Language, Vol. 137 (1999), pp.81-92.
5 T. I. Bierkster, ’State, Sovereignty and Territory’, in W. Carlsnaes, T. S. Risse and B. A. Simmons (eds), Handbook of International Relations (London, Thousand Oaks and New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2002), pp.157-76.
6 S. Krakover, ’A Boundary Permeability Model Applied to Israel, Egypt, and Gaza Strip Tri-border Area’, Geopolitics and International Boundaries, Vol. 2, (1997), pp.28-29.
7 On the history of Gaza, see J. P. Filiu, Gaza: A History (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2014).
8 The Question of Palestine and the United Nations (New York: United Nations, 2008), pp.3–6.
9 United Nations, Official Records of the Second Session of the General Assembly, Supplement no. 11, United Nations Special Committee on Palestine, Report to the General Assembly, 1947, vol. 1; United Nations General Assembly, Ad hoc Committee on the Palestinian Question, Report of Sub-Committee 1, 19 November 1947; see also E. Ben-Dror, ’The Success of the Zionist Strategy vis-à-vis UNSCOP’, Israel Affairs, Vol. 20 (2014), pp.19–39.
10 Recently in the limits of the Israeli port city of Ashdod.
11 Maps of partition from the Fabregas Collection, File P-26/763, Israel State Archives (ISA).
12 ’Deliberations of the Ad-Hoc Committee’, Hatsofe, 23 November 1947.
13 ’On the Boundaries’, Davar, 14 November 1947; on the strategic significance of the Suez Canal at that time, see C. B. Selak Jr., ’The Suez Canal Base Agreement of 1954’, American Journal of International Law, 49 (1955), pp.487–505.
14 Regarding the highly protracted debate on the history of the 1948 War, the most balanced account of that war is B. Morris, A History of the First Arab – Israeli War (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2008).
15 A. Brezner, The struggle for the Negev 1941-1948 (Israel: The Ministry of Defense, 1994), pp. 229-36; A. Ayalon, The Givati Brigade: Facing the Egyptian invader (Israel: The Ministry of Defense, 1963), pp.18-49; A. Cohen, M. Cohen and A. Mendelsohn, The Negev Brigade in the War of Independence (Self-Published, 2011), pp.116-20; K. M. Pollack, Arabs at War (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2002), pp.15–16.
16 S. Turgan, ’The battle of Yad Mordechai: The evacuation of Yad Mordechai in the War of Independence’, Ale Za’it VaCherev, Vol. 4 (2002), pp.185–204.
17 Brezner, The Struggle for the Negev, pp.232–35; Cohen, Cohen and Mendelson, The Negev Brigade, pp. 135–141.
18 Brezner, The Struggle for the Negev, pp.116–227; Ayalon, The Givati Brigade, pp.81–83.
19 D. Tal, ’Between Intuition and Professionalism: Israeli Military Leadership during the 1948 Palestine War’, The Journal of Military History, Vol. 68, (2004), p.894.
20 Protocol of the Meeting of the Provisional Government, 26 December 1948, ISA.
21 Report of the United Nations Mediator on Palestine to the Security Council, July 12, 1948 and Progress Report of the United Nations Mediator on Palestine to the Secretary-General for Transmission to the Members of the United Nations, September 16, 1948, file FM-5200/1, ISA; United Nations, Security Council, S/863, Text of Suggestions Presented by the United Nations Mediator on Palestine to the Two Parties on 28 June 1948.
22 Ayalon, The Givati Brigade, p.356; Tal, ’Between Intuition and Professionalism’, p.894; A. Carmel, The victorious commander – Assaf Simchoni, (Tel Aviv: Ydioth Aharonoth and Chemed, 2009), pp.213, 227; For the deployment of the IDF forces in the south, see Intelligence Service/3, Rehovot Base, Deployment of Forces in the South, 29 September 1948, file 1949-8287-27, Israel Defense Force Archive (IDFA).
23 ’Operation Yoav Directive’, Ma’arachot, 263-4, (June 1978), p.111; David Ben Gurion, War Diary, G. Rivlin and E. Oren (eds) (Tel Aviv: Israel Ministry of Defense, 1983), pp.733, 737–38; A. Brezner, The origins of the Israeli armored corps (Tel Aviv: Israel Ministry of Defense, 1995), pp.196–97.
24 Yiftach/Intelligence to D(South) Front, Enemy’s Deployment, 21 September 1948, file 1949-1021-23, IDFA; Enemy Forces Operating in the South According to information of Prisoners and Enemy Documents, 31 October 1948, file 1951-128-18, IDFA; The Battle for the Negev, Text of a Lecture by Igal Alon, 1 November 1948, file 1950-2289-80, IDFA; Order no. 274a, Mohammed Haider, Minister of War and Marine, Cairo, 8 August 1949, file FM-1871/9, ISA; M. Sharett to R. Shiloach, October 8, 1948, in Y. Freundlich (ed.), Documents on the Foreign Policy of Israel, May 14 – September 30, 1948 (Jerusalem: Israel State Archives, 1984), p.44; Pollack, Arabs at War, pp.19–21; Ben Gurion, War Diary, p.747.
25 Proceedings of the Provisional Government, 20 October 1948, Comments of Ben Gurion, ISA; The Battle for the Negev, Text of a Lecture by Igal Allon, 1 November 1948, file 1950-2289-80, IDFA; Summary of Information, 55 Bn. Intelligence Officer, 25 October 1948, file 1949-1041-23, IDFA; Ayalon, The Givati Brigade, pp.431–538; Z. Ofer and T. Ofer, Yiftach: a Palmach brigade in the War of Independence (Yiftach Veterans Self-Publishing, 2013), pp.252–53, 260–61; M. Bar-On, Givati like all others: The history of the 55th battalion in the War of Independence (Ef’al: The Association for the Research of the History of the Defense Force, 2008), pp.164–67; Y. Nachmias, The 52nd battalion, Givati Brigade at the War of Independence, 1948 (Modi’in: Efi Meltzer, 2001), pp.279–95, 320–23.
26 The Battle for the Negev, Text of a Lecture by Igal Allon, 1 November 1948, file 1950-2289-80, IDFA; Summary of Information, 51 Bn. Intelligence Officer, 26 October 1948, Summary of Information, 55 Bn. Intelligence Officer, 28 October 1948 and Summary of Information, 3 November 1948, file 1949-1041-23, IDFA; Front D/Operations to General Staff/Operations, 8 December 1948, file 1975-922-1025, IDFA; Bar-On, Givati like others, pp.180-81; Ben Gurion, War Diary, pp.785–86.
27 The Battle for the Negev, Text of a Lecture by Igal Allon, 1 November 1948, file 1950-2289-80, IDFA; Map of the Offensive East of Fallujah Pocket and deployment of the 151 Bn., December 1948, file 1950-2169-31, IDFA; Proceedings of the Provisional Government, 31 October 1948, Comments of Ben Gurion, ISA; ’Ashdod and Beit Jibrin’, Palestine Post, 29 October 1948.
28 The compact, and dense form of the Egyptian defensive line is illustrated in a map based on aerial photos of the Rafa – Khan-Yunis Sector, presumably from mid-December 1948, file 1951-128-18, IDFA.
29 Weekly Intelligence Reports, 9 December and 19 December 1948, Daily Intelligence Reports, 11-14 December and 28 December 1948 and 2 January 1949 file 1950-2289-80, IDFA; ’Operation Chorev Directive’, Ma’arachot, 263-4 (June 1978), p.129.
30 A Translation of the Egyptian Operation Directive No. 2 for the Rafa Sector, 19 December 1948, file 1951-128-18, IDFA; Proceedings of the Provisional Government, 8 December 1948, Comments of Ben Gurion, ISA; ’Operation Asaf’, Ma’arachot, 263-4 (June 1978), pp.124–25.
31 ’Operation Chorev’, Ma’arachot, 263-4 (June 1978), pp.126–30; Tal, ’Between Intuition and Professionalism’, p.905.
32 Proceedings of the Provisional Government, 26 December 1948, Comments of Ben Gurion, ISA; Golani Brigade, Chorev Operation Directive, 16 December 1948, Operation Directive, 19th Bn., 22 December 1948, Directive for the Abasan Raid, 22 December 1948, Report on the Abasan Raid, 23 December 1948, Summing-up of the Operations of the 19th Bn. in Chorev, 29 January 1949 file 1951-128-18, IDFA; The 13th Battalion in the War of Independence, https://www.golani13.org.il (accessed 17 January 2019).
33 Ben Gurion, War Diary, pp.912–13.
34 34 ’Operation Chorev’, pp.130–132; Tal, ’Between Intuition and Professionalism’, pp.906–07; Ben Gurion, War Diary, pp.912–13; S. Cohen-Shani, Between Tel Aviv and Cairo: The Gaza Strip in the War of Independence (Nes Tsiona: Dorot, 2007), p.103; N. Lorch, ’The British Ultimatum in Operation Chorev’, Maarachot 294–295 (1984), p.77.
35 G. Heichal, ’Operation Chorev as a Final Stage of the Subordination of the Palmach to the IDF’, Iunim Bitkumat Israel Vol. 1 (1991), pp.132–34.
36 Lorch, ’The British Ultimatum’, p.77; Ben Gurion, War Diary, pp.914–17; Tal, ’Between Intuition and Professionalism’, pp.906-07; Cohen, Cohen and Mendelson, The Negev Brigade, pp.271–73.
37 Operation Chorev Directive (2), 28 December 1948 file 1951-128-18, IDFA; Alert Directive Stage B, 30 December 1948 and Directive for Chorev Stage B, 2 January 1949, Ma’arachot, 263-4, (1978), pp.133–34; Ben Gurion, War Diary, pp.919–21; Tal, ’Between Intuition and Professionalism’, pp.907-08; Brezner, The origins, pp.258, 264–66; Cohen, Cohen and Mendelson, The Negev Brigade, pp.268-69; M. Pa’il, ’1948, 1956, 1967, The Three Battles of Rafah – El-Arish’, Maarachot Vol. 193 (1968), pp.6–9.
38 Proceedings of the Provisional Government, 2 and 5 January 1949, 6–7, 11, 16–18 and Proceedings of the Provisional Government, 27 January 1949, 4, ISA; Lorch, ’The British Ultimatum’, pp.76–83.
39 N. Caplan, ’A Tale of Two Cities: The Rhodes and Lausanne Conferences, 1949’, Journal of Palestine Studies, Vol. 21 (1992), p.6.
40 Sharett to the delegation to Rhodes, 14 January 1949 and to (Walter) Eytan, 16 January 1949, Telegrams sent by Sharett to Eytan, 19, 21, 22, 24 January 1949 and 14 February 1949, Yadin to Eytan, 12 February 1949, file FM-2453/15, ISA; Proceedings of the Provisional Government, 19 January 1949, pp. 4–6, and 23 January 1949, pp.2–4, ISA; G. Sheffer, Moshe Sharett: Political biography, (Jerusalem: Carmel, 2015), p.428.
41 The Egypt Israel General Armistice Agreement signed on 24 February 1949 file FM-4372/2, ISA.
42 United Nations General Assembly, A/RES/194 (III), 11 December 1948.
43 Caplan, ’A Tale of Two Cities’.
44 M. Shemesh, The Palestinian National Revival (Sde Boker: University of Ben Gurion Press, 2012), pp.85-86.
45 A. Shlaim, ’The Rise and Fall of the All-Palestine Government in Gaza’, Journal of Palestine Studies, Vol. 20 (1990), pp.38-42; D. Shiftan, Jordanian Option (Tel Aviv: Hkibbutz Hameuchad, 1986), p.72.
46 Michael Comay to A.D. Makintosh, 4 October 1948, Freundlich, Documents on the Foreign Policy of Israel, p.19, M. Sharett to W. Eytan, 5 October 1948, ibid., pp.21-27, D. Ben Gurion to M. Sharett, 8 October 1948, ibid., 44, M. Sharett to G. Meirson, 5 November 1948, ibid., p.141.
47 Ilan Asia, The core of the conflict (Jerusalem: Yad Izhad Ben-Zvi, 1994), p.94.
48 Ibid., pp.50–66.
49 The Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS), vol. VI (1949), pp.926-27; United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine, Third Progress Report, 21 June 1949, file FM-2447/10, ISA; Caplan, ’A Tale of Two Cities’, pp.21–23.
50 M. Sharett to W. Eytan, 9 November 1948, Freundlich, Documents on the Foreign Policy of Israel, p.155; R. Shiloach to M. Sharett, 20 November 1948, ibid., pp.209-210; M. Sharett to W. Eytan, 30 November 1948, ibid., pp.248-49; Ben Gurion, War Diary, p.837.
51 Proceedings of a Consulting Meeting Regarding the Peace Talks with the Arab States, 12 April 1949, file, FM-2447/3, ISA.
52 Ibid.
53 Proceedings of Consultation Meetings Regarding the Peace Talks with the Arab States, 19 and 22 April 1949, FM-2447/3, ISA.
54 Moshe Sharett’s comments in the meeting of the Knesset’s Foreign Affairs Committee, 2 May 1949, file FM-2451/3, ISA; Moshe Sharett, Davar Davour, Y. Sharett and R. Sharett (eds) (Tel Aviv: The Moshe Sharett Memorial, 2016) vol. 2, pp.367, 407.
55 Proceedings of meeting 16\309 of the Israeli Government, 24 May 1949, p.27, ISA; The Minister in Switzerland (Vincent) to the Secretary of State, May 9, 1949, FRUS, vol. VI, p.989; Memorandum by the Acting Secretary to the President, ibid., p.1060; Mark F. Ethridge to the Secretary of State, June 8, 1949, ibid., pp.1096-097; See also S. L. Fried, They shall not return (Tel Aviv: Resling, 2018), p.190.
56 Proceedings of meeting 32\309 of the Israeli Government, 17 August 1949, pp.13–14 ISA; Sharett to the Israeli Delegation at Lausanne, 21 August 1949, file FM-2451/3, ISA; ’The US Aspires to Detach the Southern Negev from Israel and Annex it to Arab States’, Al-HaMishmar, 21 August 1949.
57 Caplan, ’A Tale of Two Cities’, pp.26-28; Y. Tovi, ’Ben Gurion, Sharett and the Question of the Gaza Strip’, Iyunim Bitkumat Israel, 13 (2003), p.148; ’No American Pressure on Israel to Repatriate Refugees or Make Territorial Concessions’, Davar, 22 August 1949.
58 United Nations Assistance to Palestine Refugees, Interim Report of the Director of United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (New York, 1951); First Interim Report of the United Nations Economic Survey Mission for the Middle East, 16 November 1949 (Clapp Report); Moshe Sharett’s Comments on the 1st Meeting of the Knesset Foreign Affairs and Defense Committee, 9 November 1949, Davar Davour, pp.875–76; ’The Clapp Plan for the Rehabilitation of the Refugees’, Hatsofe, 22 December 1949.
59 United Nations Consular Commission for Palestine, General Committee, Egyptian proposals for the return of refugees of Gaza, United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine (UNCCP), A / AC.25 / Com.Gen / W.10, 16 February 1950; Moshe Sharett’s Comments on the 1st Meeting of the Kneset Foreign Affairs and Defense Committee, 9 November 1949, Davar Davour, p.875.
60 The IDF Chief of the General Staff to the Foreign Minister, 19 February 1950, file FM-4372/2, ISA.
61 Modus Vivendi Agreement Between Israel and Egypt Signed on 22 February 1950, file A-4183/8, ISA; Gideon Rafael to The Chairman, United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine, 28 February 1950, file FM-2451/3, ISA; Map of the Modus Vivendi Agreement, file TT-25/12, ISA; ’An Agreement for the Partition of the No-man’s Land’, Haboker, 26 February 1950; ’The Village of Dimra to Israeli Rule’, ibid., 21 March 1950.
62 Y. Cohen, ’The Demarcation of the Boundary between Israel and Egypt, the 1949 Precedent’, Maarachot Vol. 294-295 (1984), p.14.
63 Krakower, A Boundary Permeability Model, pp.36–37.
64 Filiu, Gaza: A History.
65 On the recent barriers, see ’Israel Completes “Iron Wall” Underground Gaza Barrier’, Al-Jazeera, 7 December 2021, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/12/7/israel-announces-completion-of-underground-gaza-border-barrier (accessed 6 February 2022).