Continuity and Revival: 12th-Century Standing Crosses in Huntingdonshire

Abstract

This paper arises from the authors’ preparation of the Corpus of Anglo-Saxon Stone Sculpture volume on Cambridgeshire and Huntingdonshire. As in previous volumes, we have looked hard at the manner in which the middle- and late-Saxon tradition of erecting ‘high crosses’ at significant locations, or to mark significant graves, was continued beyond the Norman Conquest in what we have called a ‘continuing tradition’ of monument type and design. Cambridgeshire and Huntingdonshire’s Anglo-Scandinavian stone sculpture is well known for its quantity, and this prolific local tradition of monument-making continued after the Norman Conquest. We focus here on five elaborately decorated Huntingdonshire ‘high crosses’ in the pre-Conquest tradition. They belong to two interrelated groups: two have a monastic context, three a secular one. Monuments at Fletton and Kings Ripton each marked significant points in the landscape. Whilst the monument at Hilton had an analogous function in perhaps marking a place of congregation, its date and use of architectural details also connects it with the pair of major monuments from Godmanchester and Tilbrook/Kimbolton, for which we suggest an additional political significance within the early cult of St Thomas of Canterbury.

Keywords:

• cross-shafts
• 12th-century Renaissance
• Thomas Becket
• stone sculpture
• boundary marker
• market

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to mention two friends, specifically, who have greatly aided in our researches. First, John McNeill read our text at a critical moment and offered several important thoughts about its content and structure. Secondly, Paul Webster of Cardiff University has been an enormous help, answering questions about the role of courtiers in the early cult of Thomas Becket with great generosity. What we say about this matter carries what conviction it does because of the directions in which he pointed us. We are also extremely grateful to Dave Watt, who undertook the reconstruction drawings of the crosses at Fletton, Tilbrook and Godmanchester as part of his work for the AHRC ‘Written in Stone’ project (2018–23).

Notes

1 O. Pächt, ‘The Pre-Carolingian Roots of Early Romanesque Art’, in Romanesque and Gothic Art. Studies in Western Art, Volume I, ed. M. Meiss (Princeton 1963), 67–75; G. Zarnecki, ‘The Transition from Romanesque to Gothic’, ibid., 152–58, at 152–53; G. Zarnecki, ‘1066 and architectural sculpture’, Proceedings of the British Academy, 52 (1966), 87–104, reprinted in G. Zarnecki, Studies in Romanesque Sculpture (London 1979). See also G. Zarnecki, ‘Germanic animal motifs in Romanesque sculpture’, Artibus et Historiae, 11/xxii (1990), 189–203.

2 J. McNeill and R. Plant ed., Romanesque and the Past. Retrospection in the Art and Architecture of Romanesque Europe (Leeds 2013), passim; but see especially, D. Kahn, ‘Uses of the Past in English Romanesque sculpture: Beyond the Antique’, ibid., 181–92 and P. Fergusson, ‘Three Romanesque Patrons and their Regard of the Past’, ibid., 193–208.

3 T. D. Kendrick, ‘Instances of Saxon Survival in Post-Conquest Sculpture’, Proceedings of Cambridge Antiquarian Society, 39 (1940), 78–84; P. Everson and D. Stocker, Corpus of Anglo-Saxon Stone Sculpture V, Lincolnshire (Oxford 1999), 88–91, 319–29; P. Everson and D. Stocker, Corpus of Anglo-Saxon Stone Sculpture XII, Nottinghamshire (Oxford 2015), 87–90, 225–38; D. Stocker and P. Everson, Summoning St Michael: early Romanesque towers in Lincolnshire (Oxford 2006).

4 P. Everson and D. Stocker, Corpus of Anglo-Saxon Stone Sculpture XIV, Cambridgeshire and Huntingdonshire (Oxford 2023).

5 G. Zarnecki, The Early Sculpture of Ely Cathedral (London 1958); G. Zarnecki, ‘Some observations concerning the Romanesque doorways of Ely Cathedral’, in Studies in Medieval History Presented to R. Allen Brown, ed. C. Harper-Bill, C. J. Holdsworth and J. L. Nelson (Woodbridge 1989), 345–52.

6 Everson and Stocker, Cambridgeshire and Huntingdonshire, 77, 450–53.

7 Ibid., especially fig. 77.

8 D. Mackreth, ‘Peterborough from St Æthelwold to Martin de Bec c.970–1155’, in Monasteries and Society in Medieval Britain, ed. B. Thompson, Harlaxton Medieval Studies, 6 (Donington 1999), 329–44; D. Mackreth, ‘Building the Nave’, in Conservation and Discovery. Peterborough Cathedral Nave Ceiling and Related Structures, ed. J. Hall and S. M. Wright (London 2015), 18–24; E. Fernie, ‘Peterborough Abbey: The Norman Church’, in Peterborough and the Soke. Art, Architecture and Archaeology, ed. R. Baxter, J. Hall and C. Marx, BAA Trans., xli (London 2019), 161–78; P. Fergusson, ‘Architecture during the Rule of abbot Benedict (1177–1194)’, ibid., 179–99.

9 P. Everson and D. Stocker, ‘Abbot Martin’s legacy: the “new town” at Peterborough and the origins of St John’s church’, Proceedings of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society, 109 (2020), 1–19.

10 Everson and Stocker, Cambridgeshire and Huntingdonshire; P. Everson, J. Hall and D. Stocker, ‘Maelstrom at Medeshamstede? Fletton’s “Radulfus” cross and the setting of Peterborough Abbey’, forthcoming.

11 Everson and Stocker, Cambridgeshire and Huntingdonshire, 453–55 ‘Fletton 11’.

12 G. Zarnecki, J. Holt and T. Holland ed., English Romanesque Art, 1066–1200 (London 1984), 272–73, nos 289a–c.

13 E.g., D. Stocker, ‘A Recently Discovered Romanesque Grave-cover from Lincoln and its local affiliations’, Lincolnshire History and Archaeology, 23 (1988), 31–34.

14 Zarnecki, Ely Cathedral, 23–37.

15 Ibid., 19–23.

16 P. Fergusson, Canterbury Cathedral Priory in the Age of Becket (New Haven and London 2011), 85–104; Fergusson, ‘Romanesque Patrons’, 201–06.

17 G. Zarnecki, English Romanesque Lead Sculpture: lead fonts of the twelfth century (London 1957), 13, no. 38.

18 R. Wood, Romanesque Yorkshire, Yorkshire Archaeological Society Occasional Paper, 9 (Leeds 2012), 35–36, 59–61, 75–77, 95–96.

19 L. A. S. Butler, ‘The Labours of the Months and “The Haunted Tanglewood”: Aspects of late twelfth-century sculpture in Yorkshire’, in A Medieval Miscellany in Honour of Professor John le Patourel, ed. R. L. Thompson, Proceedings of the Leeds Philosophical and. Literary Society, 18/i (1982), 79–95.

20 R. Wood, ‘The Romanesque monument at Conisbrough’, Yorkshire Archaeological Journal, 73 (2001), 41–60.

21 English Romanesque Art, 178–79, no. 140.

22 G. Zarnecki, Romanesque Lincoln: the sculpture of the cathedral (Lincoln 1988), 20–35.

23 Everson and Stocker, Lincolnshire, 89–91.

24 Everson and Stocker, ‘Abbot Martin’s Legacy’; Everson et al., ‘Maelstrom’.

25 Fergusson, Canterbury Cathedral Priory, 99–104.

26 English Romanesque Art, 178–79, no. 140.

27 M. Thurlby, The Herefordshire School of Romanesque Sculpture, 2nd edn (Logaston 2013), especially 106–07; R. Wood, Paradise: the world of Romanesque sculpture (York 2017).

28 Wood, Paradise, 19–20.

29 A. Katzenellenbogen, ‘Iconographic Novelties and Transformations in the Sculpture of French Church Façades ca. 1160–1190’, in Romanesque and Gothic Art, 108–18, at 114–16; Everson et al., ‘Maelstrom’.

30 Everson et al., ‘Maelstrom’; Everson and Stocker, ‘Abbot Martin’s legacy’.

31 Stocker and Everson, Summoning St Michael, 79–91; Everson and Stocker, Nottinghamshire, 188–95.

32 N. Edwards, A Corpus of Early Medieval Inscribed Stones and Stone Sculpture in Wales, II: South-West Wales (Cardiff 2007), 303–10.

33 J. Caley, H. Ellis and B. Bandinel ed., Monasticon Anglicanum … originally published in Latin by Sir William Dugdale … a new edition, 6 vols (London 1817–30), I, 390–91.

34 D. Haigh, ‘Excavation of a medieval bridge and twelfth-century cross shaft at Kings Ripton, Cambridgeshire in 1983’, Proceedings of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society, 73 (1987), 55–61.

35 C. L. Forbes, ‘Report on stone samples’, Proceedings of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society, 73 (1987), 62–63.

36 Haigh, ‘Kings Ripton’, fig. 4; Cambridgeshire Historic Environment Report ref. 02670.

37 S. J. Plunkett, ‘Mercian and West Saxon decorative stone-sculpture: schools, styles and patterns of influence’, 2 vols (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, 1984).

38 L. Broughton, Interpreting Ely Cathedral (Ely 2008), 165–73.

39 Haigh, ‘Kings Ripton’, 59.

40 S. J. Plunkett, ‘Appendix: Anglo-Saxon stone sculpture and architecture in Suffolk’, in S. West, A Corpus of Anglo-Saxon Material from Suffolk, East Anglian Archaeology, 84 (Ipswich 1998), 323–57, at 324, pl. XV; Everson and Stocker, Lincolnshire, 323–25.

41 M. H. Caviness, The Windows of Christ Church Cathedral Canterbury, Corpus Vitrearum Medii Aevi: Great Britain, 2 (Oxford 1981), window O3, 28, figs 30, 30a.

42 ‘She douses the fire of licentious passion’; J-P. Migne, Patrologia Latina (Paris 1857–66), LIX, col. 502 (book III, ch. xix).

43 A. Katzenellenbogen, Allegories of the Virtues and Vices in Medieval Art: from early Christian times to the thirteenth century, trans. A. J. P. Crick (London 1939; reprinted New York 1964), especially 20.

44 Autun, Bibliothèque Municipale, MS 19, fol. 173v.

45 Cambrai, Bibliothèque Municipale, MS 327, fol. 16v.

46 F. Jansen, Die Helmarshausener Buchmalerei zur Zeit Heinrichs des Löwen (Hildesheim and Leipzig 1933; reprinted Bad Karlshafen 1985), 68.

47 London, British Library, MS Arundel 83 II, fol. 135r.

48 Caviness, Windows, 28.

49 Katzenellenbogen, Allegories, figs 33, 36, 39.

50 Haigh, ‘Kings Ripton’, 57.

51 W. Page, G. Proby and S. I. Ladds ed., VCH Huntingdonshire, 4 vols (London 1932–38), II, 207, citing London, The National Archives, Ct.R. bdle 179, 62.

52 A. Mawer and F. M. Stenton, The Place-Names of Bedfordshire and Huntingdonshire, English Place-Name Society, 3 (Cambridge 1926), 218–21; VCH Huntingdonshire, II, 202; J. A. Raftis, The Estates of Ramsey Abbey. A Study in Economic Growth and Organisation, Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies, Studies and Texts Series, 3 (Toronto 1957); C. R. Hart, ‘The foundation of Ramsey Abbey’, Revue Bénédictine, 104/iii–iv (1994), 295–327.

53 VCH Huntingdonshire, II, 207–08; Raftis, Estates, 38 & n.

54 Hart, ‘Foundation of Ramsey Abbey’, map 3.

55 K. S. Meyer, ‘The Lady and the Vine: putting the horsewoman on the Hilton of Cadboll cross-slab into context’, in Poetry, Place and Gender: Studies in Medieval Culture in Honor of Helen Damico, ed. C. E. Karkov (Kalamazoo 2009), 171–96, at 185–87.

56 A. R. and E. B. De Windt, Ramsey: the lives of an English Fenland town, 1200–1600 (Washington 2006), 20–21.

57 Everson and Stocker, Lincolnshire, 323–25.

58 Everson and Stocker, Cambridgeshire and Huntingdonshire, 325–29.

59 G. B. Brown, The Arts in Early England. Volume VI/ii, Anglo-Saxon Sculpture (London 1937), 110.

60 S. Raban, The estates of Thorney and Crowland: a study in medieval monastic land tenure, Department of Land Economy Occasional Papers, 7 (Cambridge 1977).

61 Everson and Stocker, Cambridgeshire and Huntingdonshire, 403–04.

62 S. E. Kelly ed., Charters of Peterborough Abbey, Anglo-Saxon Charters, 14 (Oxford 2009), 233, 271.

63 R. W. Southern, ‘Aspects of the European Tradition of Historical Writing 4: The Sense of the Past’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5/xxiii (1973), 246–63.

64 Anon, ‘Sculptured stone from Godmanchester’, Church Builder: Journal of the Incorporated Church Building Society, 37 (1871), 237–39 and unnumbered fig.

65 E. L. Cutts, Manual for the Study of the Sepulchral Slabs and Crosses of the Middle Ages (London 1849).

66 J. A. Mackay, ‘The Harrison Collection of Die Proofs of Postage Stamps’, British Museum Quarterly, 28/i (1964), 1–6.

67 J. Hadley, ‘A lost sculpture from Godmanchester’, Records of Huntingdonshire, 3/ii (1993), 4–6, at 6.

68 We are grateful to Dr David Parsons for his opinion on the engraved inscription, and his advice that the explanation offered here is probably the most plausible interpretation in such circumstances.

69 W. E. Keil, ‘Remarks on Patron Inscriptions with Restricted Presence’, in Romanesque Patrons and Processes, ed. J. Camps, M. Castiñeiras, J. McNeill and R. Plant (Abingdon and New York 2018), 279–89, at 280–81.

70 Everson and Stocker, Nottinghamshire, 138–43.

71 Everson and Stocker, Cambridgeshire and Huntingdonshire, 458, 458–59, 462.

72 H. R. Watkin, A Short Description of Torre Abbey, 3rd edn (Torquay 1912), frontispiece; A. C. Ellis, An Historical Survey of Torquay (Torquay 1930), 32.

73 S. A. Heslop, ‘Seals’, in English Romanesque Art, 306–09, nos 338–46.

74 Zarnecki, Romanesque Lincoln, 93–96.

75 See his article in this volume of JBAA.

76 VCH Huntingdonshire, II, 286.

77 P. Harbison, The High Crosses of Ireland: an iconographical and photographic survey, 3 vols (Bonn 1992), I, 146–52; II, 488–99.

78 R. Cramp, Corpus of Anglo-Saxon Stone Sculpture I, County Durham and Northumberland (Oxford 1984), 68–71, Durham 5, 6 and 7, pls 43, 45, 46.

79 Harbison, High Crosses, 34–35, 83–86, 95, 114–15, 162–63; R. Stalley, Irish High Crosses (Dublin 1996), 42–44; R. Stalley, ‘On the Edge of the World: Hiberno-Romanesque and the Classical tradition’, in Romanesque and the Past, 157–69, at 166.

80 Harbison, High Crosses; Stalley, Irish High Crosses, 42–44; Stalley, ‘Edge of the World’, 166.

81 W. G. Collingwood, ‘Anglian and Anglo-Danish sculpture in the West Riding, with addenda to the North and East Ridings and York, and a general review of the early Christian monuments of Yorkshire’, Yorkshire Archaeol. J., 23 (1914), 129–299, at 135, 233, 249–50; E. Coatsworth, Corpus of Anglo-Saxon Stone Sculpture VIII, Western Yorkshire (Oxford 2008), 286, 288, 289; Wood, Romanesque Yorkshire, 44.

82 Hadley, ‘Lost sculpture’, 5.

83 M. Penman, ‘The Bruce Dynasty, Becket and Scottish Pilgrimage to Canterbury, c. 1178–c. 1404’, Journal of Medieval History, 32 (2006), 346–70.

84 VCH Huntingdonshire, II, 6–7.

85 F. Barlow, Thomas Becket (London 1986), 236.

86 N. Vincent, ‘The Murderers of Thomas Becket’, in Bischofsmord in Mittelalter: Murder of Bishops, ed. N. Fryde and D. Reitz, Veröffentlichungen des Max-Plack-Insituts für Geschichte Band, 191 (Göttingen 2003), 211–72.

87 T. Keefe, ‘Shrine Time: King Henry II’s Visits to Thomas Becket’s Tomb’, Haskins Society Journal, 11 (2003), 115–22, at 118; T. Keefe, ‘Mandeville, William de, third earl of Essex (d. 1189)’, Oxford DNB online 2004 (consulted 11 January 2022). For a valuable summary of Becket relics in England, see J. Luxford, ‘The Relics of Thomas Becket in England’, JBAA, 173 (2020), 124–42.

88 Keefe, ‘Mandeville’.

89 M. Bull, ‘Criticism of Henry II’s expedition to Ireland in William of Canterbury’s miracles of St Thomas Becket’, Journal of Medieval History, 33/ii (2007), 107–29, especially at 123–26.

90 Paul Webster pointed out other possible links between William de Mandeville and the early development of the cult of St Thomas in a £20 bequest by William to Canterbury and in a charter relating to the Becket cult where William was a witness: Norman Charters from English Sources: Antiquaries, Archives and the Rediscovery of the Anglo-Norman Past, ed. N. Vincent (Pipe Roll Society xcvii, ns 59, 2013), 105, 218–19, no. 92.

91 J. Guy, Thomas Becket: warrior, priest, rebel (New York 2012), 338; A. Duggan, ‘Diplomacy, Status and Conscience: Henry II’s Penance for Becket’s Murder’, in Forschungen zur Reichs- Papst- und Landesgeschichte: Peter Herde zum 65. Geburtstag von Freunden, Schülern und Kollegen dargebracht, ed. K. Borchardt and E. Bünz, 2 vols (Stuttgart 1998), I, 265–90.

92 VCH Huntingdonshire, II, 287.

93 The pacy narrative of the Gesta Henrici reflects Henry’s promotion of the idea of a causal connection between his extraordinary penance at the shrine of St Thomas and his decisive military success in summer 1174: from 9 July he was at Canterbury with Thomas for four days; on 13 July he returned to London where his army was mustering; that very same day the king of the Scots was captured at Alnwick and, when the news reached London on 18 July, Henry ascribed the turn of events to God and St Thomas and immediately that day advanced his forces to Huntingdon; the castle surrendered on 21 July: Benedict of Peterborough, Gesta Regis Henrici Secundi, ed. W. Stubbs (Rolls Series, xlix, 1867; reprinted Cambridge 2012), 72–73; Keefe, ‘Shrine Time’, 115–22.

94 VCH Huntingdonshire, II, 130; A. J. Duggan, ‘Becket is dead! Long live St Thomas’, in The Cult of St Thomas Becket in the Plantagenet World c.1170–c.1220, ed. P. Webster and M-P. Gelin (Woodbridge 2016), 25–52, at 36–39, 46; P. Webster, ‘The Cult of St Thomas Becket: An Historiographical Pilgrimage’, ibid., 1–24, at 19–20. For a more detailed account of the various contemporary reports of the impact of Henry’s penance in bringing St Thomas to his aid, see Duggan, ‘Diplomacy, Status and Conscience’, 278–84.

95 P. Latimer, ‘The Earls in Henry II’s Reign’ (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Sheffield, 1982), 166–68, 284; B. English, The Lords of Holderness 1086–1260. A Study in Feudal Society (Hull/Oxford 1979), 28–30. See also Keefe, ‘Shrine Time’, 117–18.

96 C. W. Hollister, ‘Mandeville, Geoffrey de, first earl of Essex (d. 1144), magnate’, Oxford DNB online 2004 (consulted 21 January 2022).

97 H. J. M. Green, ‘Early Medieval Godmanchester’, Proceedings of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society, 54 (1961), 90–98; H. J. M. Green, Godmanchester (Cambridge 1977); H. J. M. Green and T. Malim ed., Durovigutum: Roman Godmanchester (Oxford 2017); R. Morris, Churches in the Landscape (London 1989), 39–40.

98 The National Archive, MPCC 1/9; see Maps and Plans in the Public Record Office: I. British Isles, c.1410–1860 (London 1967), entry 2589, now with an altered call number.

99 J. A. Raftis, A Small Town in Late Medieval England: Godmanchester 1278–1400 (Toronto 1982), 5.

100 VCH Huntingdonshire, II, 181.

101 Cambridgeshire SMR, no. 02630.

102 VCH Huntingdonshire, II, 287; Green, Godmanchester, 36; J. A. Raftis, Early Tudor Godmanchester. Survivals and New Arrivals (Toronto 1990), 112–13.

103 M. Aston, ‘Iconoclasm in England: official and clandestine’, in The Impact of The Reformation 1500–1640, ed. P. Marshall (London 1997), 167–92, at 182–85; A. Walsham, The Reformation of the Landscape (Oxford 2011), 102–03; P. Everson and D. Stocker, ‘“The cros in the markitte stede”. The Louth cross, its monastery and its town’, Med. Archaeol., 61/ii (2017), 330–71, at 343.

104 VCH Huntingdonshire, II, 287.

105 Everson and Stocker, Cambridgeshire and Huntingdonshire, 464–66.

106 L. A. S. Butler, ‘Minor monumental sculpture in the East Midlands’, Archaeol. J., 121 (1964), 111–53, at 125–35. The terminology is explained in B. and M. Gittos, ‘Glossary of Cross Slab Terms’, in F. H. Greenhill, Monumental Incised Slabs in the County of Lincoln (Newport Pagnell 1986), xxvi–xxviii.

107 E.g., D. A. Stocker, St Mary’s Guildhall, Lincoln: the survey and excavation of a medieval building complex, The Archaeology of Lincoln, XII/1 (London 1991), 33–37.

108 Everson and Stocker, Cambridgeshire and Huntingdonshire, 443–44.

109 Ibid., 463–64; Everson and Stocker, Lincolnshire, 319–20, 320–22.

110 E.g., C. Wilson, The Gothic Cathedral: the Architecture of the Great Church, 1130–1530 (London and New York 1990), 14–20; P. Draper, The Formation of English Gothic: Architecture and Identity (New Haven and London 2006), 91–94.

111 Early portrayals do sometimes depict Thomas holding a crozier, rather than the cross-staff of an archbishop, as for example in the glass of c. 1220–30 at the cathedrals at Coutances (Manche) and Angers (Maine-et-Loire): A. A. Jordan, ‘The St Thomas Becket Windows at Angers and Coutances: Devotion, Subversion and the Scottish Connection’, in Cult of St Thomas, 171–207. Also in frescoes at Tarrasa: R. Gameson, ‘The Early Imagery of Thomas Becket’, in Pilgrimage. The English Experience from Becket to Bunyan, ed. C. Morris and P. Roberts (Cambridge 2002), 46–89, at 53, and references therein. Kahn offers four depictions of 12th-century archbishops of Canterbury carrying croziers, including Becket: D. Kahn, Canterbury Cathedral and its Romanesque Sculpture (Austin 1991), pls 2–5.

112 English, Lords of Holderness, 30.

113 Guy, Becket, 338.

114 A. Charlton, ‘A Study of the Mandeville Family and its Estates’ (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Reading, 1977), 281.

115 W. Page ed., VCH Bedfordshire, 3 vols (London 1904–12), III, 171; VCH Huntingdonshire, III, 79; R. V. Turner, ‘Men Raised from the Dust’: administrative service and upward mobility in Angevin England (Pennsylvania 1988); J. Stratford, ‘Geoffrey Fitzpiers’, Kimbolton Local History Journal, 4 (1998), 6–10.

116 VCH Huntingdonshire, III, 75.

117 E.g., P. Bigmore, The Bedfordshire and Huntingdonshire Landscape (London 1979), 105–06; Charlton ‘Mandeville Family’, 119.

118 J. Stratford. ‘Kimbolton: the creation of a medieval market town’, Kimbolton Local History Journal, 1, rev. edn (2007), 2–6.

119 VCH Huntingdonshire, III, 75 & n. 17.

120 J. Stratford, Kimbolton Town Trail (leaflet published by Huntingdonshire District Council n.d.).

121 J. Spraggon, Puritan Iconoclasm during the English Civil War (Woodbridge 2003), 11–13.

122 R. Williams, ‘Reformation’, in Art Under Attack: Histories of British Iconoclasm, ed. T. Barber and S. Boldrick (London 2013), 48–73, at 66.

123 Spraggon, Puritan Iconoclasm, 13.

124 RCHM, An Inventory of the Historical Monuments in Huntingdonshire (London 1926), 137; Everson and Stocker, Cambridgeshire and Huntingdonshire, 459–60.

125 Stocker, St Mary’s Guildhall, 36.

126 R. Cramp, Grammar of Anglo-Saxon Ornament (Oxford 1991), xxv.

127 Everson and Stocker, Lincolnshire, 328.

128 F. Saxl, English Sculptures of the Twelfth Century (London 1954), n. 22, pl. xxx; G. Zarnecki, Later English Romanesque Sculpture 1140–1210 (London 1953), 31–32.

129 Wood, Romanesque Yorkshire, 219.

130 Summarized in Plunkett, ‘Appendix’, 329, 347.

131 E. Coatsworth, ‘The iconography of the Crucifixion in pre-Conquest sculpture in England’, 2 vols (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Durham 1979); E. Coatsworth, ‘Late pre-Conquest sculptures with the Crucifixion south of the Humber’, in Bishop Æthelwold: His Career and Influence, ed. B. Yorke (Woodbridge 1988), 161–93.

132 English Romanesque Art, 241–46, nos 232, 233, 235–38, 240, 241.

133 VCH Huntingdonshire, II, 315.

134 E.g., W. M. Noble, Huntingdonshire (Cambridge 1920), 9–10 & pl.; J. Dady, Hilton, Huntingdonshire, 2nd edn (Huntingdon 2000), dustjacket, 60, 67–68.

135 RCHM, Huntingdonshire, 138.

136 Dady, Hilton, 60, 67–68.

137 E. Walford, ‘Westminster: Tothill Fields and neighbourhood’, in Old and New London: Volume 4 (London 1878), 14–26.

138 Dady, Hilton, 69; Cambridge, Cambridge University Library, Maps MS Plans 635.

139 A. H. Allcroft, Earthwork of England: prehistoric, Roman, Saxon, Danish, Norman, mediaeval (London 1908), 602; Ordnance Survey, Field Archaeology in Britain, 5th edn (Southampton 1973), 160–61; P. R. Doob, The Idea of the Labyrinth (Ithaca and London 1990), 113–17; Walsham, Reformation of the Landscape, 534.

140 Walsham, Reformation of the Landscape, 531–53.

141 RCHM, Huntingdonshire, 136.

142 N. Orme, Going to Church in Medieval England (New Haven and London 2021), 274–75.

143 Doob, Labyrinth, 70–77, 123–33.

144 VCH Huntingdonshire, II, 281.

145 Ibid., II, 7.

146 Ibid., II, 130 and references there.

147 Gesta Henrici, I, 73.

148 Harbison, High Crosses, 83–86, 95; Stalley, Irish High Crosses, 43–44.

149 L. De Beer and N. Speakman, Thomas Becket. Murder and the Making of a Saint (London 2021), 86–93; Vincent, ‘Murderers’.

150 Vincent, ‘Murderers’, 214–16. See J. Lee, ‘The Merchants’ Saint: Thomas Becket among the Merchants of Hamburg’, JBAA, 173 (2020), 174–82.

151 Butler, ‘Minor Monumental Sculpture’; Everson and Stocker, Cambridgeshire and Huntingdonshire, 150–52.

152 Everson and Stocker, Lincolnshire, 29–33; Everson and Stocker, Cambridgeshire and Huntingdonshire, 81–89.

153 Southern, ‘Aspects’.