https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2768-7386
![Sample our Humanities journals, sign in here to start your FREE access for 14 days]({"type":"image" , "src" : "/sda/5939/TOC-Subject-Sample-2021-Humanities.jpg"})
Abstract
This article examines Moscow-Havana relations from the Russian Revolution in November 1917 to the present to inform debates on (1) continuities from history impacting contemporary Russian foreign policy; (2) the assumption that before the Cuban Revolution of 1959 Moscow suffered from ‘geographical fatalism’ concerning Latin America; (3) contemporary Moscow-Havana relations; and (4) asymmetrical triangles in international relations. A rigorous historical qualitative analysis of primary and secondary sources is used to examine the periods November 1917–January 1959, 1959–1991, and 1992 onwards. Both realism and constructivism are utilised throughout. Acting as a bridge between historical research and the study of international relations this article posits that in each period Moscow and Havana’s individual relationships with Washington were key to Moscow-Havana relations. Continuities from history for the contemporary relationship are to both the November 1917–January 1959 era and the 1959–1991 period. Consequently, since 1917 an asymmetrical triangle comprising Moscow, Havana, and Washington has principally existed. Aiding its originality this article postulates that a ‘stable marriage’ with the most powerful member of an asymmetrical triangle (Washington) being the ‘pariah’ can become the norm. This finding has resonance for global politics and the behaviour of regional superpowers within their respective region.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank everyone who read drafts of this article.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 For example, please see: Laurence T. Caldwell, ‘Russian Concepts of National Security’ in Robert Legvold (ed), Russian Foreign Policy in the Twenty-First Century and the Shadow of the Past (New York, NY: Colombia University Press, 2007), 279–342. Alicja Curanovic, The Sense of Mission in Russian Foreign Policy: Destined for Greatness! (New York, NY: Routledge, 2022). Peter J. S. Duncan, Russian Messianism: Third Rome, Revolution, Communism and After (London; New York, NY: Routledge, 2000). Maria Engström, ‘Contemporary Russian Messianism and New Russian Foreign Policy’, Contemporary Security Policy, 35, 3 (2014), 356–79. Ronald Grigor Suny, ‘Living in the Hood: Russia, Empire, and Old and New Neighbours’ in Robert Legvold (ed), Russian Foreign Policy, 35–76. John P. Ledonne, The Russian Empire and the World 1700–1917. The Geopolitics of Expansion and Containment (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997). Charlie Lewis, ‘Contemporary Russian Messianism under Putin and Russian Foreign Policy in Ukraine and Syria’, The Slavonic and East European Review, 98, 3 (July 2020), 531–59. Eric Shiraev and Vladislav Zubok, Anti-Americanism in Russia: From Stalin to Putin (New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000). Andrei P. Tsygankov, Russia’s Foreign Policy. Change and Continuity in National Identity, Lanham, 2006. Stephen White, Gorbachev and After (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
2 For example, please see: Gilbert Achcar, The New Cold War: The US, Russia and China – From Kosovo to Ukraine (London: The Westbourne Press Paperback, 2023). J. L. Black and Michael Johns (eds), The Return of the Cold War: Ukraine, The West and Russia (London: Routledge, 2016). Gabriel Gavin, ‘Putin’s push for a new USSR reawakens the bloody chaos of Soviet collapse’, POLITICO, 19 Sep. 2022. https://www.politico.eu/article/vladimir-putin-fall-russia-empire-ukraine-war-armenia-azerbaijan/. Marvin Kalb, Imperial Gamble. Putin, Ukraine, and the New Cold War (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2015). Robert Legvold, Return to Cold War (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2016). Edward Lucas, The New Cold War: Putin’s Russia and the Threat to the West (New York, NY: St. Martin’s Griffin, 2014). Richard Sakwa, ‘New Cold War’ or twenty years’ crisis? Russia and international politics’, International Affairs, 84, 2 (2008), 241–67.
3 The White House, ‘Remarks by President Biden on Russia’s Unprovoked and Unjustified Attack on Ukraine’, 24 Feb. 2022. https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/speeches-remarks/2022/02/24/remarks-by-president-biden-on-russias-unprovoked-and-unjustified-attack-on-ukraine/
4 Lazar Jeifets and Anton Andreev, ‘Cuba and Post-Soviet Russia Challenges and Opportunities’ in Vladimir Rouvinski and Victor Jeifets (eds), Rethinking Post-Cold War Russian–Latin American Relations (New York, NY: Routledge, 2022), 172–85. V. Mikhailov Vadim and Konstantin V. Losev. ‘Economic Cooperation of Russia and Cuba in the Modern Stage’ in Igor Kovalev (ed), Economic and Social Trends for Sustainability of Modern Society. Proceedings of the III International Conference on Economic and Social Trends for Sustainability of Modern Society (ICEST-III 2022), 2022, 19–21.
5 Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, The World Was Going Our Way. The KGB and the Battle for the Third World (New York, NY: Basic Book, 2005), 27. Yuri Pavlov, Soviet-Cuban Alliance 1959–1991 (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1994), 2. Edmé Domínguez (ed), ‘Introduction. USSR-Latin America: A Relationship That Never Took Off?’ in The Soviet Union’s Latin American Policy. A Retrospective Analysis (Gotebrogs: Goteborgs Universitet, 1995), 1. Nicola Miller, Soviet Relations with Latin America 1959–1987 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 5–6.
6 Brantly Womack, Asymmetry and International Relationships (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016), 112.
7 Duncan Hallas, The Comintern. A History of the Third International (Chicago, IL: Haymarket Book, 1985).
8 All the documents referenced from Cuban National Archive (CAN) are from the archive of the Secretary to the President of Cuba and the documents referenced from the MINREX archive are from Archivo Europa–Russia–Ordinario. Both sets of documents have been referenced in full as the information on the documents is not consistent throughout these archives.
9 Stephen Walt, ‘International Relations: One World, Many Theories’, Foreign Policy (Spring 1998), 29–32 and 34–46.
10 Leon Aron, ‘The Putin Doctrine: Russia’s Quest to Rebuild the Soviet State’, Foreign Affairs, 8 Mar. 2013. https://www.aei.org/articles/the-putin-doctrine/. Lilia Shevtsova, ‘The Kremlin Is Winning’, Brookings Institution, 12 Feb. 2015. http://www.brookings.edu/research/articles/2015/02/12-kremlin-is-winning-shevtsova.
11 Tsygankov, Russia’s Foreign Policy, 14.
12 Christian Thorun, Explaining Change in Russian Foreign Policy. The Role of Ideas in Post-Soviet Russia’s Conduct towards the West (New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009).
13 Alexander Wendt, ‘Anarchy Is What States Make of It: The Social Construction of Power Politics,’ International Organization, 46, 2 (Spring 1992), 396–97.
14 Samual, J. Barkin, ‘Realist Constructivism’, International Studies Review, 5 (2003), 326.
15 Walt, ‘Anarchy,’ 40–41. Jack Snyder, ‘One World, Rival Theories’, Foreign Policy (Nov–Dec. 2004), 60.
16 Samuel Farber, The Origins of the Cuban Revolution Reconsidered (Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 71.
17 Hugh Thomas, Cuba or the Pursuit of Freedom (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1971), 462–1034. Walter LaFeber, The American Age. United States Foreign Policy at Home and Abroad since 1750 (New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, 1989), 72. Louis A. Pérez, Cuba Between Reform and Revolution (New York, NY: Oxford University Press 2006), 118–256.
18 Suny, ‘Living in the Hood’, 57.
19 Hans Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations (New York, NY: Knopf, 1955), 25.
20 Kenneth Waltz, Theory of International Politics (New York, NY: Randhom House, 1979), 4.
21 John Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics (New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, 2010), 21.
22 Ibid, 2.
23 Aron, ‘The Putin Doctrine’. Shevtsova, ‘The Kremlin Is Winning’.
24 H. Michael, Erisman, Cuba’s Foreign Relations in a Post-Soviet World (Gainseville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2000), 33–47.
25 Kendall E. Bailes, ‘The American Connection: Ideology and the Transfer of American Technology to the Soviet Union, 1917–1941,’ Comparative Studies in Society and History, 23, 3 (Jul. 1981), 421–48. Julian M. Cooper, ‘Technology in the Soviet Union’, Current History, 85, 513 (Oct. 1986), 317–20 and 340–42.
26 International Trade Statistics Yearbook 2021 Volume I. Trade by Country. United Nations, 2022. https://comtradeapi.un.org/files/v1/app/publicationfiles/2021/VolI2021.pdf. Anuario Estadístico de Cuba. 2021, 8.4. http://www.onei.gob.cu/sites/default/files/08_sector_externo_2021-_1.pdf.
27 Lowell Dittmer, ‘The Strategic Triangle: An Elementary Game-Theoretical Analysis,’ World Politics, 33, 4 (Jul. 1981), 485–515.
28 Ibid, 491.
29 Ibid, 489.
30 Brantly Womack, ‘Asymmetry and Systemic Misperception: China, Vietnam and Cambodia during the 1970s’, The Journal of Strategic Studies, 26, 2 (Jun. 2003), 92–119. Brantly Womack, China and Vietnam: The Politics of Asymmetry (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006). Brantly Womack, China Among Unequals: Asymmetric Foreign Relationships in Asia (Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Company, 2010). Brantly Womack, ‘How Size Matters: The United States, China and Asymmetry’ in Zhao Quansheng (ed), Future Trends in East Asian International Relations: Security, Politics, and Economics in the 21st Century (New York, NY: Routledge, 2014), 123–50. Womack, Asymmetry and International Relationships.
31 Womack, Asymmetry and International Relationships, 103–5.
32 Ibid, 111–4.
33 Ibid, 104.
34 Ibid.
35 Dittmer, ‘The Strategic Triangle’, 489. Womack, Asymmetry and International Relationships, 103.
36 Dittmer, ‘The Strategic Triangle’, 490.
37 Womack, Asymmetry and International Relationships, 112.
38 Dittmer, ‘The Strategic Triangle’, 499.
39 Richard K. Ashley, The Political Economy of War and Peace: The Sino-Soviet- American Triangle and the Modern Security Problématique (London: Frances Pinter, 1980). William E. Griffith, The World and the Great-Power Triangles (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1975). Joshua S. Goldstein and John R, Freeman, ‘US-Soviet-Chinese Relations: Routine, Reciprocity, or Rational Expectations?’ The American Political Science Review, 85, 1 (Mar. 1991), 17–35. Kim J. Ilpyong (ed), The Strategic Triangle: China, the United States, and the Soviet Union (New York, NY: Paragon House, 1987). Gerald Segal, The Great Power Triangle (New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press, 1981). Seongii Woo, ‘Triangle Research and Understanding Northeast Asian Politics’, Asian Perspective, 27, 2 (2003), 33–63.
40 R. J. Basaldú, ‘Two Eagles, One Dragon: Asymmetric Theory and the Triangular Relations between the US, China and Mexico’ (Ph.D. dissertation, Baylor University, 2011). Dussel Peters, Adrian H. Hearn, and Harley Shaiken (eds), China and the New Triangular Relationships in the Americas. China and the Future of US-Mexico Relations (Center for Latin American Studies, University of Miami; Center for Latin American Studies, University of California, Berkeley; Centro de Estudios China-México, Facultad de Economía, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 2013). Ana Soliz de Stange, Synchronization in International Relations: Triangular interactions between China, Latin American and the United States (Política, Globalidad y Ciudadanía Facultad de Ciencias Políticas y Administración Pública Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, 2015).
41 Soliz de Stange, ‘Synchronization’.
42 Tom Long, ‘The US, Brazil and Latin America: the dynamics of asymmetrical regionalism’, Contemporary Politics, 24, 1 (2018), 113–29.
43 Melintei Mihai, ‘Energy Asymmetry of the Caspian Region. Trans-Caspian Gas Pipeline Project: An Opportunity to Strengthen the Security of European Energy’, Journal of Caspian Security, 4 (2021), 43–6.
44 Our World in Data, 2020. https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/gdp-per-capita-maddison-2020?country=Western+Europe∼Western+Offshoots∼East+Asia∼South+and+South-East+Asia∼Middle+East∼Eastern+Europe∼Latin+America∼Sub-Sahara+Africa∼OWID_WRL∼RUS∼USA.
45 Piero Melograni, Lenin and the Myth of World Revolution: Ideology and Reasons of State, 1917–1920 (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press International, Inc., 1989), 57. Peter Shearman, Rethinking Soviet Communism (London: Palgrave, 2015), 213. Margot Light, The Soviet Theory of International Relations (New York, NY: St Martin’s Press, 1988). James Mark, Paul Betts, Alena Alamgir, Peter Apor, Eric Burton, Dogdan C. Iacob, Steffi Marung, and Radina Vucetic, Socialism Goes Global. The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe in the Age of Decolonization (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2022), 324–7.
46 Boris Goldenberg, ‘The Rise and Fall of a Party: The Cuban CP (1925–59)’, 63. Barry Carr, ‘Mill Occupations and Soviets: The Mobilisation of Sugar Workers in Cuba 1917–1933’, Journal of Latin American Studies, 28 (1996), 134. Barry Carr, ‘From Caribbean Backwater to Revolutionary Opportunity: Cuba’s Evolving Relationship with the Comintern, 1925–34’ in Tim Rees and Andrew Thorpe (eds), International Communism and the Communist International 1919–43 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998), 237. Goldenberg, ‘The Rise and Fall’, 64. Manuel Caballero, Latin America and the Comintern 1919–1943 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 33–6. Rolloe Poppino, International Communism in Latin America. 1917–1963 (London: The Free Press of Glencoe, 1964), 155. Carr, ‘From Caribbean Backwater’, 248. ‘Letter of the Central Committee of the CP USA to the Central Committee of the CP of Cuba’, 6 Nov. 1930, Russian State Archive for Social and Political History (RGASPI) 495/138. The Communist, X, 1 (Jan. 1931), 66–73. O. Rodríguez, ‘Our Present Tasks in Cuba’, The Communist, X, 6 (Jun. 1931), 516. Please note in the summer of 1944 the Cuban Communist Party (PCC) changed its name to the Cuban Socialist Party (PSP).
47 S. Clissold, Soviet Relations with Latin America 1918–1968 (London: Oxford University Press, 1970), 2. Light, The Soviet Theory. Mark et al., Socialism Goes Global, 41–3 and 324–7.
48 Marcelo Salinas to Communist International, 6 Dec. 1919, RGASPI 495/105/2. ‘El Sembrado. Periódico Quince rial Ideas, Critica y Combate’ RGASPI/495/105/1. ‘Report on Cuba,’ 1926. RSA495/105/1. Julio Antonio Mella, ‘Información para la Prensa Obrea y Revolución’, 1926, RSA/495/105/1.
49 Nikolai S. Leonov, Raúl Castro. Un Hombre en Revolución (Havana: Editorial Capitán San Luis, 2015).
50 Julia E. Sweig, Inside the Cuban Revolution. Fidel Castro and the Urban Underground (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002), 126.
51 ‘José Agustín Martínez to Vyacheslav Molotov’, 5 Oct. 1942, in G. E. Mamedov and A. Dalmau (eds), Rossiia-Kuba, 1902–2002, dokumenty i materialy (Moscow: Mezhdunarodnye otnosheniia, 2004), 37. ‘Exchange of Notes Between the Mission of the USSR in the Republic of Cuba and the Republic of Cuba’, 2 April 1952, in Mamedov and Dalmau (eds), Rossiia-Kuba, 84–85.
52 ‘Un Músico Cubano Visita La Unión Soviética’, Cuba y la URSS, 75 (Jan. 1952), 3–5.
53 O. D. Kameneva, ‘Cultural Raprochment: The USSR Society for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries’, Pacific Affairs, 1, 5 (Oct. 1928), 6–8.
54 ‘Protocol Number 275 of the Council of Labour and Defence’, 9 Dec. 1921, in Mamedov and Dalmau (eds), Rossiia-Kuba, 29–30. Vyacheslav Molotov, ‘What opinion of the Cuban Government’, Aug 1939, RGASPI, 82/2/1275. Secretaria de la Presidencia Caja 51, Numero 75, Cuban National Archive (CAN). Thomas, Cuba, 728. Vneshniaia torgovlia SSSR statisticheskii sbornik 1918–1966 (Moscow: Mezdunarodnye otnosheniia, 1967), 13. Angel Garcia and Piotr Mironchuk, Esbozo Historica de las Relaciones entre Cuba-Rusia y Cuba-URSS (Havana: Academia de Ciencias de Cuba, 1976), 141–2.
55 Andrew and Mitrokhin, The World Was Going Our Way, 27. Pavlov, Soviet-Cuban Alliance, 2. Domínguez ‘Introduction’, 1. Miller, Soviet Relations, 5–6.
56 Nikhita Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers (Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company, 1970), 488–9.
57 Edmé Domínguez, ‘The Mystification of a Policy or the Policy of Mystification’ in The Soviet Union’s Latin American Policy, 72. Nina Khrushcheva, ‘Interview’, 14 Dec 2000. MINREX.
58 Peter Shearman, The Soviet Union and Cuba (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1987), 10–11.
59 Wayne S. Smith, The Closest of Enemies. A Personal and Diplomatic Account of US-Cuban Relations Since 1957 (New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, 1987), 144. Pérez, Cuba Between Reform and Revolution, 237–56. Thomas, Cuba, 1193–354.
60 Vneshniaia torgovlia SSSR statisticheskii sbornik v 1989–1990 (Moscow: mezhdunarodnye otnosheniia, 1991), 5. Anuario Estadístico de Cuba 1985 (Havana: Comité Estatal de Estadísticas, 1986).
61 ‘Dias de la cultura cubano en la URSS’, América Latina, 6 (1984), 47–53. Jacqueline Loss, Dreaming in Russian, The Cuban Soviet Imaginary (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2013). Pavlov, Soviet-Cuban Alliance, 249.
62 Piero Gleijses, Conflicting Missions: Havana, Washington and Africa, 1959–1976 (University of North Carolina Press, 2001).
63 Pavlov, Soviet-Cuban Alliance, 111–255. Cole Blasier, ‘Moscow’s Retreat from Cuba,’ Problems of Communism, 40, 6 (1991), 95–9.
64 Light, The Soviet Theory, 33–100. N. Malcolm and A. Pravda, ‘Democratization and Russian Foreign Policy,’ International Affairs, 72, 3 (1996), 537–52. P. Kubicek, ‘Russian Foreign Policy and the West’, Political Science Journal, 114, 4 (1999–2000), 547–50.
65 Bobo Lo, Russian Foreign Policy in the Post-Soviet Era. Reality, Illusion and Mythmaking (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), 8.
66 E. A. Larin, Politicheskaia istorii Kuba XX Veka (Moscow: Visshaya shkola, 2007), 164.
67 Izvestia, 9 Mar. 1992, 7. Izvestia, 12 March. 1993, 5.
68 Anuario Estadístico de Cuba. 2000, VI-5–VI-7. http://www.camaracuba.cu/TPHabana/Estadisticas2000/estadisticas2000.htm.
69 Raúl Castro, ‘Raúl Castro: Reasons and Revelations’, Latinskaia Amerika, 9 (1993), 22.
70 Michael Grossman, ‘Role Theory and Foreign Policy Change: The Transformation of Russian Foreign Policy in the 1990s’, International Politics, 42 (2005), 334–51. Margot Light, ‘Foreign Policy’ in Stephen White, Zvi Gitelman, and Richard Sakwa (eds), Developments in Russian Politics (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 221–40. Stephen White, Russia’s New Politics. The Management of a Postcommunist Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 229–30.
71 Granma International, 17 Apr. 1996, 13.
72 Igor Ivanov, ‘Russian Diplomacy’s Latin American Vecotr’, Nezavisimaya gazeta, 18 Sep. 1999, 6. Granma, 10 Dec. 2000, 1.
73 Pravda, 29 Oct. 2001, 3.
74 ‘65 Aniversario de la Gran Victoria’, Edición de la Embajada de la federación de Rusia en Cuba, 4 (2010), 28.
75 Granma, 12 Jul. 2014, 5.
76 TASS. ‘Putin Highlights Importance of Strengthening Strategic Partnership with Cuba’, TASS News Agency, 11 Oct. 2019. https://tass.com/politics/1082641.
77 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Cuba (MINREX), ‘Russia Rejects Cuba’s inclusion in US terrorist list’, Official Website of MINREX, 21 May 2021. https://cubaminrex.cu/en/node/2097.
78 Russian Foreign Ministry, ‘Comment by the Official Representative of the Russian Foreign Ministry, Mikhail Zakharova, on the Situation in Cuba’, Official Website of Russian Foreign Ministry, 15 Jul. 2021. https://www.mid.ru/en/search?p_p_id=3&p_p_lifecycle=0&p_p_state=maximized&p_p_mode=view&_3_struts_action=/search/search#.
79 United Nations, ‘General Assembly: 28th Plenary Meeting, 77th Session’, Official Website of the United Nations, 3 Nov. 2022. https://media.un.org/en/asset/k16/k16o4lsqf3.
80 ‘Aggression against Ukraine: Resolution/Adopted by the General Assembly’, United Nations Digital Library, 2 Mar. 2022. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3959039?ln=en. ‘Territorial Integrity of Ukraine: Defending the Principles of the Charter of the United Nations; Resolution/Adopted by the General Assembly’, United Nations Digital Library, 12 Oct. 2022. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3990400?ln=en. ‘UN General Assembly Calls for Immediate End to War in Ukraine’, UN News Global Perspective Human Stories, 23 Feb. 2023. https://news.un.org/en/story/2023/02/1133847.
81 ‘65 Aniversario de la Gran Victoria’.
82 Russian Government, ‘Dmitry Medvedev’s Visit to Havana’s National Capitol Building’, Official Website of the Government of the Russian Federation, 4 Oct. 2019. http://government.ru/en/news/38010/.
83 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Cuba (MINREX), ‘Joint Article by Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov and Foreign Minister of Cuba Bruno Rodriguez Parrilla on the 60th Anniversary of Restoring Russian-Cuban Diplomatic Relations’, Official Website of MINREX, 8 May 2020. https://cubaminrex.cu/en/node/1952. TASS. ‘Putin, Cuban president unveil monument to Fidel Castro in Moscow’, TASS. Russian News Agency, 22 Nov. 2022. https://tass.com/society/1540365.
84 Russian Government, ‘Dmitry Chernyshenko meets with Deputy Prime Minister of Cuba Ricardo Cabrisas’, Official Website of the Government of the Russian Federation, 6 Oct. 2022. http://government.ru/en/news/46734/.
85 Anuario Estadístico de Cuba. 2021, 8.4.
86 TASS, ‘Russia, Cuba to Agree on Supply of 1.64 mln tons of Oil, Oil Products per Year—Cuban PM’, TASS News Agency, 13 Jun. 2023. https://tass.com/economy/1631625.
87 Russian Government, ‘Dmitry Chernyshenko Meets’.
88 Ministry of Russian Foreign Affairs, ‘Dmitry Chernyshenko Meets with President of the Republic of Cuba Miguel Diaz-Canel Bermudez’, Official Website of Russian Foreign Ministry, 19 May 2023. http://government.ru/en/search/?q=Cuba&dt.till=06.06.2023&dt.since=7.05.2012&sort=rel&type=
89 Interfax, ‘Russia-Cuba Trade Grows Nine Times in Jan–April 2023 – Mishustin’, Interfax News Agency, 7 Jun. 2023. Interfax, https://interfax.com/newsroom/top-stories/91271/.
90 Russian Government, ‘Dmitry Medvedev Holds Talks with Miguel Mario Díaz-Canel Bermudez, President of the Council of Ste and the Council of Ministers of Cuba’, Official Website of the Government of the Russian Federation, 3 Oct. 2019. http://government.ru/en/news/38007/.
Russian Government, ‘Dmitry Medvedev Visits Boca de Jaruco Oil Drilling Site’, Official Website of the Government of the Russian Federation, 4 Oct. 2019. http://government.ru/en/news/38013/.
91 Alina Ramos Martin, ‘Russia and Cuba Agree on Food Products Export’, Prensa Latina, 13 May 2022. https://www.plenglish.com/news/2022/05/13/russia-and-cuba-agree-on-food-products-export/.
92 ‘Inversiones Rusas en Cuba: negocios y acuerdos desde 2020’, eITOQUE, 29 May 2023. https://eltoque.com/inversiones-rusas-en-cuba-negocios-y-acuerdos-desde-2020.
93 ‘Inversiones Rusas en Cuba’.
94 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Cuba (MINREX), ‘Russia and Cuba Boost Energy, Banking and Health Cooperation’, Official Website of MINREX, 1 Oct. 2020. https://cubaminrex.cu/en/node/3456.
95 ‘Cuba’s Prime Minister Arrives in Moscow for 11-Day Visit’, Havana Times, 7 Jun. 2023. https://havanatimes.org/features/cubas-prime-minister-arrives-in-moscow-for-11-day-visit/.
96 ‘Cuba y Rusia, de los asteroides a la caña de azúcar,’ On Cuba News, 10 Jul. 2023. https://oncubanews.com/cuba/cuba-y-rusia-de-los-asteroides-a-la-cana-de-azucar/.
97 Russian Government, ‘Dmitry Chernyshenko Meets’.
98 Anuario Estadístico de Cuba. 2021, 15.6.
99 ‘Cuban Film week to be Held in Russia’, Prensa Latina, 5 Nov. 2019. https://www.plenglish.com/index.php?o=rn&id=48631&SEO=cuban-film-week-to-be-held-in-russia. Dinella García Acosta and Irene Pérez, ‘Asiste Díaz-Canel a la gala del ballet de San Petersburgo en La Habana’, CubaDebate, 15 Nov. 2019. http://www.cubadebate.cu/noticias/2019/11/15/asiste-diaz-canel-a-la-gala-del-de-san-petersburgo-en-la-habana/.
100 ‘Dedican mega exposición de arte en Rusia al aniversario 500 de LaHabana.’ Cubadebate, 28 Nov. 2019. http://www.cubadebate.cu/noticias/2019/11/28/dedican-mega-exposición-de-arte-en-rusia-al-aniversario-500-de-la-habana.
101 Gleijses, Conflicting Missions.
102 Womack, Asymmetry and International Relationships, 112.
103 Aron, ‘The Putin Doctrine’. Shevtsova, ‘The Kremlin Is Winning’. Erisman, Cuba’s Foreign Relations, 33–47.
104 For example, please see Caldwell, ‘Russian Concepts’. Curanovic, ‘The Sense of Mission’. Duncan, ‘Russian Messianism’. Engström, ‘Contemporary Russian Messianism’. Grigor Suny, ‘Living in the Hood’. Ledonne, The Russian Empire. Lewis, ‘Contemporary Russian Messianism’. Shiraev and Zubok, Anti-Americanism in Russia. Tsygankov, Russia’s Foreign Policy. White, Gorbachev and After.
105 Andrew and Mitrokhin, The World Was Going Our Way, 27. Pavlov, Soviet-Cuban Alliance, 2. Domínguez ‘Introduction’, 1. Miller, Soviet Relations, 5–6.
106 Jeifets and Andreev, ‘Cuba and Post-Soviet Russia’. Mikhailov and Losev, ‘Economic Cooperation of Russia And Cuba’.
107 Ashley, The Political Economy. Basaldú, ‘Two Eagles, One Dragon.’ Dittmer, ‘The Strategic Triangle’. Griffith, The World and the Great-Power Triangles. Goldstein and Freeman, ‘US-Soviet-Chinese Relations’. Ilpyong, The Strategic Triangle. Segal, The Great Power Triangle. Long, ‘The US, Brazil and Latin America’. Mihai, ‘Energy Asymmetry’. Peters, Hearn, and Shaiken, China and the New Triangular Relationships. Soliz de Stange, ‘Synchronization’. Womack, Asymmetry and International Relationships. Woo, ‘Traiangle Research’.
108 Womack, Asymmetry and International Relationships, 112.
Additional information
Funding
Notes on contributors
Mervyn J. Bain
Mervyn J. Bain (PhD, University of Glasgow) is a Professor in the Department of Politics and International Relations at the University of Aberdeen (United Kingdom). He has published widely on Cuba’s relationship with the Soviet Union/Russia, including several books. These books include Moscow and Havana 1917 to the present. An enduring relationship despite major changes in global contexts, published by Lexington Books.