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Abstract
This article addresses one of the key challenges facing transitional and emerging economies: managing rural–urban migration to tackle rural decline and the associated rapid urbanisation. We introduce New Institutionalism as a novel conceptual framework to analyse the interactions between the institutional environment and migrant agency in a rural–urban system: the Akmola–Astana migration system in northern Kazakhstan. Our results suggest that the government might be more successful if it engages migrant agency and incentivises remaining in rural areas instead of designing policies to discourage rural–urban migration.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank our research assistants at Nazarbayev University, Ms Aigerim Zhumakanova and Mr Yerbolat Assylbek. This work was supported by the German Research Foundation DFG (BU1319/16-1, HE 5272/8-1). This article is a contribution to the project ‘New Institutionalism and Bayesian Networks: Establishing an Analytical Framework to Model Migration Decision Making in Rural Kazakhstan’.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 In this article, we use the term ‘migration system’ in a purely descriptive rather than conceptual way. We define a migration system as two or more locations that exchange people, goods, services and information with each other.
2 See for example, Bissenova (Citation2017, pp. 642–45).
3 We define structure/institutions as ‘systems of established and prevalent social rules that structure social interactions’ (Hodgson Citation2006, p. 2). ‘Agency’ refers to the ability of social actors to make independent choices framed by a more or less fixed institutional environment (March & Olsen Citation1984, p. 738; Emirbayer & Mische Citation1998, p. 970). As the focus of our research is on regulatory policies, we follow the practice of institutionalist literature that uses the terms ‘structure’ and ‘institutions’ interchangeably. Although some scholars disagree with the synonymous use of ‘structure’ and ‘institutions’, the debate is not relevant in the empirical context of this article. Nevertheless, we have opted to exclusively use the term ‘institutions’ for ease of reading.
4 Translocality ‘describes phenomena involving mobility, migration, circulation and spatial interconnectedness not necessarily limited to national boundaries’ (Greiner & Sakdapolrak Citation2013, p. 373).
5 Though the lead researcher understands Russian, a Kazakh-speaking research assistant was present to assist with the interviews held in Kazakh.
6 To ensure the interview participants were at ease, interviews were not recorded. Instead, notes were taken.
7 Random route sampling is a widely used method to reach interview participants who are not registered on publicly accessible records. Researchers are given a starting position, such as in a market, and random walking instructions (Bauer Citation2014, p. 519).
8 See, for example, statements from Altai Kulginov, Astana’s mayor since 2019, in ‘Altai Kul`ginov: Kazhdyi god v stolitsu pereezzhayut svyshe 50 tysyach chelovek’, KazInform, 12 February 2020, available at: https://www.inform.kz/ru/altay-kul-ginov-kazhdyy-god-v-stolicu-pereezzhayut-svyshe-50-tysyach-chelovek_a3613661, accessed 23 May 2022.
9 ‘Nazarbaev ozhidaet rosta neseleniya Astany do 4 millionov chelovek’, Tengrinews, 23 April 2016, available at: https://tengrinews.kz/kazakhstan_news/nazarbaev-ojidaet-rosta-naseleniya-astanyi-4-millionov-293199/, accessed 23 May 2022; interview 14, government official, city migration department, Astana, 29 April 2016.
10 ‘Sokrashchenie sel`skogo neseleniya: progress ili katastrofa?’, Radio Azattyq, 16 September 2014, available at: https://rus.azattyq.org/a/osobennosti-urbanizatsii-po-kazakhstanski/26586531.html, accessed 23 May 2022; ‘Desyatki dereven` SKO skoro budut likvidirovany’, Kursiv, 12 November 2018, https://kz.kursiv.media/2018-11-12/desyatki-dereven-sko-skoro-budut-likvidirovany/ accessed 23 May 2022; interviews: 13, town mayor, regional town, Akmola province, 20 September 2016; 15, policy consultant, Astana, 22 June 2017.
11 ‘Plan Tokaeva i plan Sagintaeva: kakim viditsya budushee Nur-Sultan i Almaty’, Forbes/Kazakhstan, 9 October 2019, available at: https://forbes.kz/process/urbanity/kak_sdelat_iz_almatyi_manhetten/, accessed 23 May 2022; interviews: 5, government official, city migration department, Astana, 21 April 2016; 7, government official, city planning department, Centre for Sustainable Development, Astana, 27 September 2016.
12 ‘Neobkhodimo snizhat` nekontroliruemyi pritok sel`skoi molodezhi v goroda—Bozhko’, Total, 18 September 2017, available at: https://www.total.kz/ru/news/vnutrennyaya_politika/neobhodimo_snizhat_nekontroliruemii_pritok_selskoi_molodezhi_v_goroda__bozhko_date_2017_09_18_11_17_24, accessed 25 May 2022.
13 Interviews: 5, government official, city migration department, Astana, 21 April 2016; 6, village mayor, Astana, 2 June 2016; 7, government official, city planning department, Centre for Sustainable Development, Astana, 27 September 2016.
14 Interviews: 16, Astana migrant, Kojandy village, 2 June 2016; 17, Astana migrant, Kojandy village, 2 June 2016.
15 Interview 5, government official, city migration department, Astana, 21 April 2016.
16 The name has been changed to maintain the anonymity of our interviewee (interview 22, Rustam, potential Astana migrant, Shortandy district, 18 September 2016).
17 Interview 20, villager, migrant household, Shortandy district, 17 September 2016.
18 The name has been changed to maintain the anonymity of our interviewee (interview 23, Madina, potential Astana migrant, Shortandy district, 18 September 2016).
19 The translocal characteristic of migration processes and the safety net function were also revealed in other interviews, for example, interviews: 19, villager, migrant household, Shortandy district, 17 September 2016; 20, villager, migrant household, Shortandy district, 17 September 2016; 24, villager, migrant household, Shortandy district, 17 September 2016; 25, villager, migrant household, Shortandy district, 17 September 2016.
20 Interviews: 19, villager, migrant household, Shortandy district, 17 September 2016; 20, villager, migrant household, Shortandy district, 17 September 2016; 24, villager, migrant household, Shortandy district, 17 September 2016; 25, villager, migrant household, Shortandy district, 17 September 2016.
21 Interviews: 3, village mayor, Stepnogorsk district, 27 May 2016; 26, migration expert, Astana, 28 May 2016.
22 For example, interviews: 25, villager, migrant household, Shortandy district, 17 September 2016; 27, villager, migrant household, Stepnogorsk district, 26 May 2016; 28, potential Astana migrant, village in Shortandy district, 18 September 2016.
23 The names have been changed to maintain the anonymity of our interviewees (interview 29, Sergei and Maria, Astana migrants, Astana, 1 March 2017).
24 The name has been changed to maintain the anonymity of our interviewee (interview 30, Nurlan, Astana migrant, Astana, 2 March 2017).
25 Interviews: 19, villager, migrant household, Shortandy district, 17 September 2016; 31, villager, migrant household, Shortandy district, 16 September 2016; 32, villager, Akkol district, 20 September 2016.
26 Which was also supported by our qualitative interviews, for example, interview 32, villager, Akkol district, 20 September 2016.
27 Interviews: 3, village mayor, Stepnogorsk district, 27 May 2016; 19, villager, migrant household, Shortandy district, 17 September 2016; 26, migration expert, Astana, 28 May 2016; 33, villager, migrant household, Shortandy district, 16 September 2016; 34, villager, migrant household, Shortandy district, 16 September 2016; 35, villager, migrant household, Shortandy district, 18 June 2016.
28 For instance, interviews: 27, villager, migrant household, Stepnogorsk district, 26 May 2016; 33, villager, migrant household, Shortandy district, 16 September 2016; 36, villager, migrant household, Shortandy district, 18 June 2016.
29 In our analysis we do not distinguish between Russian and European ethnicities (that is, Ukraine, Polish and German), as they are all strongly Russified.
30 The name has been changed to maintain the anonymity of our interviewee (interview 37, Alexandr, villager, migrant household, Shortandy district, 18 June 2016).
31 See for example, Kaşikçi (Citation2019, p. 1362).
32 Interviews: 29, Sergei and Maria, Astana migrants, Astana, 1 March 2017; 37, Alexandr, villager, migrant household, Shortandy district, 18 June 2016.
33 For an exception see Laruelle (Citation2015, p. 337).
34 See for example, Laszczkowski (Citation2011a, pp. 85–6, 88; Citation2016a, p. 48).
35 The city migration department was originally in charge of the integration of Oralman Kazakhs but is now in charge of all internal migration to the city.
36 Interview 5, government official, city migration department, Astana, 21 April 2016.
37 ‘“Begstvo iz aula”: chto delat` s massovoi migratsiei sel`chan v goroda?’, Central Asia Monitor, 16 October 2019, available at: https://camonitor.kz/33769-begstvo-iz-aula-chto-delat-s-massovoy-migraciey-selchan-v-goroda.html, accessed 23 May 2022; ‘Plan Tokaeva i plan Sagintaeva: kakim viditsya budushee Nur-Sultan i Almaty’, Forbes/Kazakhstan, 9 October 2019, available at: https://forbes.kz/process/urbanity/kak_sdelat_iz_almatyi_manhetten/, accessed 23 May 2022; ‘Pochemu ne stoit pereezshat` v Nur-Sultan’, Kursiv, 9 October 2019, https://kz.kursiv.media/2019-10-09/pochemu-ne-stoit-pereezzhat-v-nur-sultan/, accessed 23 May 2022; ‘Bozhko: Nur-Sultan protsvetaet, a sel`chanin ne znaet, kak provesti vecher’, Tengrinews, 9 October 2019, available at: https://tengrinews.kz/kazakhstan_news/bojko-nur-sultan-protsvetaet-selchanin-znaet-provesti-vecher-381142/, accessed 23 May 2022.
38 Interview 7, government official, city planning department, Centre for Sustainable Development, Astana, 27 September 2016.
39 A side effect may be the creation of a property bubble as described by Yessenova (Citation2010, p. 35) in Almaty, for instance.
40 Interview 5, government official, city migration department, Astana, 21 April 2016.
41 ‘Urbanizatsiya v Kazakhstane usugublyaet sotsproblemy—deputat’, ZonaKz, 18 December 2019, available at: https://zonakz.net/2019/12/18/urbanizaciya-v-kazaxstane-usugublyaet-socproblemy-deputat/, accessed 25 May 2022.
42 The name has been changed to maintain the anonymity of our interviewee (interview 38, Aigerim, Astana migrant, Astana, 22 September 2016).
43 See for example, Yessenova (Citation2006, p. 54) on the bazaar in Almaty and Laszczkowski (Citation2016a, p. 38) on Astana.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Thomas Dufhues
Thomas Dufhues, External Environment for Agriculture and Policy Analysis, Leibniz Institute of Agricultural Development in Transition Economies (IAMO), Halle (Saale), 06120, Germany. Email: [email protected]
Gertrud Buchenrieder
Thomas Herzfeld, External Environment for Agriculture and Policy Analysis, Leibniz Institute of Agricultural Development in Transition Economies (IAMO), Halle (Saale), 06120, Germany. Email: [email protected]
David Runschke
Gertrud Buchenrieder, Universität der Bundeswehr, Department of Political and Social Sciences, RISK Research Center, Werner-Heisenberg-Weg 39, Neubiberg, 85579, Germany. Email: [email protected]
Susanne Schmeidl
David Runschke, External Environment for Agriculture and Policy Analysis, Leibniz Institute of Agricultural Development in Transition Economies (IAMO), Halle (Saale), 06120, Germany. Email: [email protected]
Thomas Herzfeld
Susanne Schmeidl, School of Social Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia. Email: [email protected]
Galiya Sagyndykova
Galiya Sagyndykova, Department of Economics, School of Sciences and Humanities, Nazarbayev University, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan. Email: [email protected]