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Research Article

The Process of Virtual Social Media Warfare and the Mechanism of Divergence from the Truth

 

Abstract

Disinformation, a longstanding weapon in warfare, skilfully employs technological tools to deceive adversaries and secure strategic advantages. In today’s digital age, social media wields unprecedented power, overshadowing traditional media in access and technology, consequently fuelling the alarming surge in disinformation. The personalization of media content perpetuates echo chambers, stifling exposure to diverse perspectives. This insidious synergy between feedback loops and disinformation perpetuates a self-sustaining cycle, distancing us from the truth and cementing ideological divides. Social media users find themselves ensnared in this disinformation warfare, with evolving technology continually heightening the challenges we face.

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Correction Statement

This article was originally published with errors, which have now been corrected in the online version. Please see Correction (http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09700161.2024.2311456)

Notes

1. David Vergun, ‘Joint communications interoperability critical to war fighters’, U.S. Army, 27 June 2014 at https://www.army.mil/article/128980/joint_communications_interoperability_critical_to_warfighters (Accessed on 19 May 2022).

2. M. Metcalf, ‘Deception Is the Chinese Way of War’, United States Naval Institute Magazine, 2017 as cited in R. Nichols, H. Mumm, W. Lonstein, S. Sincavage, C. Carter, JP. Hood, R. Mai, M. Jackson, and B. Shields, Disruptive Technologies with Applications in Airline and Marine and Defense Industries, New Prairie Press, Manhattan, Kansas, 2021, pp. 387-432 at https://kstatelibraries.pressbooks.pub/unmanned5/chapter/legal-ramifications-in-a-post-covid-19-era/ (Accessed on 16 May 2022).

3. Eian Katz, ‘War of Lies: Protecting Civilians from Disinformation during Armed Conflict’, SSRN, 5 June 2021 at https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/Delivery.cfm/SSRN_ID3860972_code2656728.pdf?abstractid=3860972&mirid=1 (Accessed on 13 November 2023).

4. Don Fallis, ‘What is Disinformation?’ Library Trends, 63 (3), 2015, pp. 401–426.

5. ‘The Emerging Risk of Virtual Societal Warfare: Social Manipulation in a Changing Information Environment’, at https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports/RR2700/RR2714/RAND_RR2714.pdf (Accessed on18 June 2023).

6. ‘“Fake News” and Disinformation’, Handbook for Journalism Education and Training, UNESCO Series on Journalism Education, Paris, 2018, p. 59.

7. Ibid.

8. Richard L. Hasen, Cheap Speech: How Disinformation Poisons Our Politics—and How to Cure It, Yale University Press, London, 2022.

9. Ibid.

10. Ibid, p. 47.

11. Christian Fuchs, Social Media: A Critical Introduction, Sage, Thousand Oaks, California, 2013, p. 37.

12. Elanor Colleoni, Alessandro Rozza, and Adam Arvidsson, ‘Echo Chamber or Public Sphere? Predicting Political Orientation and Measuring Political Homophily in Twitter Using Big Data’, Journal of Communication, 64, 2014, pp. 317–332.

13. Ibid.

14. Maria Glenski, Svitlana Volkova, and Srijan Kumar, ‘User Engagement with Digital Deception’, in Kai Shu, Suhang Wang, Dongwon Lee, and Huan Liu (eds.), Disinformation, Misinformation, and Fake News in Social Media: Emerging Research Challenges and Opportunities, Springer, Switzerland, 2020, pp. 39–62.

15. Ibid.

16. Randall K. Nichols, ‘Disruptive Technologies with Applications in Airline & Marine and Defense Industries’, New Prairie Press at Kansas State University, 2 February 2021, p. 390, at https://newprairiepress.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1038&context=ebooks (Accessed on 13 November 2023).

17. Ibid.

18. Ibid.

19. Megan Burns, ‘Information Warfare: What and How?’ Carnegie Mellon School of Computer Science, University in Pittsburgh, 1999 at https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~burnsm/InfoWarfare.html (Accessed on16 May 2022).

20. ‘How has Social Media Emerged as a Powerful Communication Medium?’ University Canada West, British Columbia, 18 August 2022 at https://www.ucanwest.ca/blog/media-communication/how-has-social-media-emerged-as-a-powerful-communication-medium/ (Accessed on 25 May 2022).

21. Brett van Niekerk and Manoj S. Maharaj, ‘The Information Warfare Life Cycle Model’, SA Journal of Information Management, 13(1), 2011, pp. 1-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.4102.sajim.v13i1.476

22. ‘Disinformation and Russia’s war of aggression against Ukraine: Threats and governance responses’, at https://www.oecd.org/ukraine-hub/policy-responses/disinformation-and-russia-s-war-of-aggression-against-ukraine-37186bde/ (Accessed on 3 November 2022).

23. S. Bradshaw, and P.N. Howard, ‘The Global Disinformation Order’, Oxford Internet Institute, 2019 at https://demtech.oii.ox.ac.uk/research/posts/the-global-disinformation-order-2019-global-inventory-of-organised-social-media-manipulation/ (Accessed on 16 May 2022).

24. ‘International Telecommunication Union’, at Disinformation and Russia’s war of aggression against Ukraine (oecd.org).

25. Siying Du and Steve Gregory, ‘The Echo Chamber Effect in Twitter: Does community polarization increase?’ at https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/The-Echo-Chamber-Effect-in-Twitter%3A-does-community-Du-Gregory/8117e96b9b726c9a37ff022575d00eedefdd67c6 (Accessed on 10 June 2023).

26. Ibid.

27. Mary Blankenship, Caitlin J. Saladino and William E. Brown Jr., ‘Ukraine-Russia War: Nevada Twitter and Disinformation Trends’, Elections & Governance Fact Sheet No. 3 pp. 1–4.

28. Ibid.

29. Ibid.

30. Ibid.

31. Bridget Smart, Joshua Watt, Sara Benedetti, Lewis Mitchell, and Matthew Roughan, ‘#IStandWithPutin versus #IStandWithUkraine: The interaction of bots and humans in the discussion of the Russia/Ukraine war’, The University of Adelaide, Social Informatics: 13th International Conference, Social Informatics, October 2022, pp. 34–53.

32. Ibid.

33. Siying Du and Steve Gregory. ‘The Echo Chamber Effect in Twitter: does community polarization increase?’ at https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/The-Echo-Chamber-Effect-in-Twitter%3A-does-community-Du-Gregory/8117e96b9b726c9a37ff022575d00eedefdd67c6 (Accessed on 10 June 2023).

34. Ibid.

35. Ibid.

36. Sunardi S.Brahmana and Yuddy Saputra, ‘The Effect of the Online Social Network Structure Characteristic toward Cognitive and Affective Involvement, And Its Implication toward Purchase Intention: Buzzing Product on Twitter’, at https://repository.widyatama.ac.id/items/c771aba7–4814–4635-9d03-cf2b0508404c (Accessed on 10 June 2023).

37. Siying Du and Steve Gregory. ‘The Echo Chamber Effect in Twitter: does community polarization increase?’ at https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/The-Echo-Chamber-Effect-in-Twitter%3A-does-community-Du-Gregory/8117e96b9b726c9a37ff022575d00eedefdd67c6 (Accessed on 10 June 2023).

38. ‘Topics on Twitter | Twitter Help’. Help Center, 19 January 2022 at https://help.twitter.com/en/using-twitter/follow-and-unfollow-topics. (Accession on 10 June 2023)

39. ‘About your for you timeline on Twitter’, Twitter Help Center, at https://sqzy.us/lyZBVxM5QYR80 (Accessed on 13 June 2023).

40. P. W. Singer and Emerson T. Brooking, LikeWar: The Weaponization of Social Media, an Eamon Dolan Book, New York, 2018, p. 200.

41. Ibid.

42. ‘How algorithms have changed the media landscape—for better or worse!’ at How algorithms have changed the media landscape—The Choice by ESCP (Accessed on 19 May 2023).

43. C. Diaz Ruiz and T. Nilsson, ‘Disinformation and Echo Chambers: How Disinformation Circulates on Social Media Through Identity-Driven Controversies’, Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 42(1), 2023, pp.18–35.

44. ‘Inside the social media echo chamber’, at https://www.brookings.edu/blog/techtank/2016/12/09/inside-the-social-media-echo-chamber/ (Accessed on 5 May 2023).

45. C. Diaz Ruiz and T. Nilsson, no. 42.

46. E. Dubois and G. Blank, ‘The echo chamber is overstated: the moderating effect of political interest and diverse media’, Information, Communication & Society, 21 (5), 2018, pp. 729–745.

47. C. Diaz Ruiz and T. Nilsson, no. 42.

48. Ibid.

49. G. Pennycook and D.G. Rand, ‘The Implied Truth Effect: Attaching Warnings to a Subset of Fake News Stories Increases Perceived Accuracy of Stories Without Warnings’, Management Science, 66(11), 2019, pp. 4944–4957.

50. Henry Jenkins, Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide, NYU Press, 2006.

51. Vinton Cerf, ‘Transnational Internet: Preservation of Freedoms and Privacy’.

India International Centre Quarterly, 45 (3–4), 2018, pp. 9–14.

52. P. W. Singer and Emerson T. Brooking, no. 39, p. 121.

53. Jennifer Kavanagh and Michael D. Rich, ‘Truth Decay: An Initial Exploration of the Diminishing Role of Facts and Analysis in American Public Life’, RAND Corporation, 2018.

54. Adam Kowalski, ‘Disinformation and Russia’s war of aggression against Ukraine: Threats and governance Responses’, OECD Policy Responses: Ukraine Tackling the Policy Challenges, 3 November 2022 at https://www.oecd.org/ukraine-hub/policy-responses/disinformation-and-russia-s-war-of-aggression-against-ukraine-37186bde/ (Accessed on 29 July 2023).

55. Laura Edelson, Minh-Kha Nguyen, Ian Goldstein, Oana Goga, Damon McCoy and Tobias Lauinger, ‘Understanding engagement with U.S. (mis)information news sources on Facebook’, Proceedings of the 21st ACM Internet Measurement Conference, Association for Computing Machinery, 2021, pp. 444–463.

56. The phrase ‘far-right news’ refers to news items and publications that advance far-right ideology. White nationalism, neo-Nazism, and anti-immigration sentiment are only a few examples of the diverse ideologies that fall under the umbrella of far-right philosophy.

57. Laura Edelson, Minh-Kha Nguyen, Ian Goldstein, Oana Goga, Damon McCoy and Tobias Lauinger, no. 54.

58. H. Shahbaznezhad, R. Dolan, and M. Rashidirad, ‘The Role of Social Media Content Format and Platform in Users’ Engagement Behavior’, Journal of Interactive Marketing, 53(1), 2021, pp. 47–65, at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intmar.2020.05.001 (Accessed on 29 July 2023).

59. Ibid.

60. Jessica Brandt and Valerie Wirtschafter, ‘How Russia Spreads Propaganda about Ukraine in Latin America and the Impact of Platform Responses’, Foreign Policy Program at Brookings, December 2022.

61. Ibid.

62. Akinobu Iwasawa and Rintaro Hosokawa, ‘Russia gains ground in information war against Ukraine’, Nikkei Asia, 21 August 2022 at https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/Datawatch/Russia-gains-ground-in-information-war-against-Ukraine (Accessed on 24 July 2023).

63. Jessica Brandt and Valerie Wirtschafter, no 59.

64. Linda Gallant, ‘Communicative Informatics: An Active and Creative Audience Framework of Social Media’, tripleC: Communication, Capitalism & Critique”, Open Access Journal for a Global Sustainable Information Society 9 (2), 2011, pp. 231–246.

65. ‘The Science behind Clickbait Titles (and How to Use Them Responsibly)’ at https://www.brafton.com/blog/creation/clickbait-titles/ (Accessed on 10 June 2023).

66. Mike Loukides, ‘The Biggest Problem with Social Media Has Nothing to Do with Free Speech’, at https://qz.com/1714598/information-feedback-loops-make-social-media-more-dangerous (Accessed on 15 June 2023).

67. Igor Volzhanin, Impact of Feedback Loops on Decision-Making, PhD Dissertation, University of London, 2019 at https://www.dcs.bbk.ac.uk/site/assets/files/1025/igor_volzhanin.pdf. (Accessed on 16 June 2023).

68. ‘Social Media and the “Spiral of Silence”’, at https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2014/08/26/social-media-and-the-spiral-of-silence/ (Accessed on 16 June 2023).

69. ‘Understanding the role of fear of missing out and deficient self-regulation in sharing of deep fakes on social media: Evidence from eight countries. Frontiers in psychology’ at https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1127507 (Accessed on 13 June 2023).

70. Andrew K. Przybylski, Kou Murayama, Cody R. DeHaan, Valerie Gladwell, ‘Motivational, emotional, and behavioural correlates of fear of missing out’, Computers in Human Behavior, 29 (4), 2013, pp. 1841–1848.

71. ‘Biases Make People Vulnerable to Misinformation Spread by Social Media’, at https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/biases-make-people-vulnerable-to-misinformation-spread-by-social-media/ (Accessed on 16 June 2023).

72. ‘Confirmation Bias’ at https://www.scribbr.com/research-bias/confirmation-bias/ (Accessed on 9 May 2023).

73. Gordon Pennycook and Tyrone Cannon, ‘Prior Exposure Increases Perceived Accuracy of Fake News’, Journal of Experimental Psychology General, September 2018.

74. As cited in Kseniya Kizilova and Pippa Norris, ‘Assessing Russian Public Opinion on the Ukraine War’, Russian Analytical Digest, (281), 29 March 2022 at https://css.ethz.ch/content/dam/ethz/special-interest/gess/cis/center-for-securities-studies/pdfs/RAD281.pdf#page=2 (Accessed on 11 September 2023).

75. ‘What is VK’, VK Company at https://vk.company/en/company/about/ (Accessed on 11 September 2023).

76. ‘What is Odnoklassniki, Definition, Meaning and Examples’, Arimetrics, at https://www.arimetrics.com/en/digital-glossary/odnoklassniki (Accessed on 11 September 2023).

77. Kseniya Kizilova and Pippa Norris, no. 73.

78. Denis Volkov, Are meaningful public opinion polls possible in today’s Russia? Levada-Center, Yuri Levada Analytical Center at https://www.levada.ru/en/2023/04/24/are-meaningful-public-opinion-polls-possible-in-today-s-russia/ (Accessed on 12 September 2023); Kseniya Kizilova and Pippa Norris, no. 73.

79. Kseniya Kizilova and Pippa Norris, no.73.

80. Ibid.

81. M. Cinelli, M. Conti, L. Finos, F. Grisolia, P. Kralj Novak, A. Peruzzi, M. Tesconi, F. Zollo, W. Quattrociocchi, ‘(Mis)Information Operations: An Integrated Perspective’, Journal of Information Warfare, 18 (3), 2019, pp. 83–98.

82. P. W. Singer and Emerson T. Brooking, no. 39, p. 122.

83. Jozef Hrabina, ‘Just Wars, or Just Fallacies: The Case for Ideologies, Cognitive Bias, and Wars’, The Defence Horizon Journal, 12 January 2023.

84. David C. Barker, ‘Perspectives on Politics’, in W. Lance Bennett and Steven Livingston (eds.), The Disinformation Age: Politics, Technology, and Disruptive Communication in the United States, Cambridge University Press, New York, 2020. pp. 1320–1321.

85. Deana A. Rohlinger and Sarah Sobieraj (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Digital Media Sociology, Oxford University Press, New York, 2022, p. 602.

86. P. W. Singer and Emerson T. Brooking, no. 39, p. 133.

87. ‘Social Media as Information Warfare’ at https://nsiteam.com/social/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/IIJO_eIntern-IP_Social-Media-as-IW_Matthews_FINAL.pdf (Accessed on 7 May 2023).

88. ‘Artificial Intelligence, Deepfakes, and Disinformation: A Primer’, at https://www.rand.org/pubs/perspectives/PEA1043–1.html (Accessed on 5 May 2023).

89. ‘The Weaponization of Information: The Need for Cognitive Security’, at https://www.rand.org/pubs/testimonies/CT473.html (Accessed on 14 June 2023).

90. Information warfare, as a separate technique of waging war, does not exist. There are, instead, several distinct forms of information warfare, each laying claim to the larger concept. Various forms of information warfare that involve the protection, manipulation, degradation, and denial of information.

Martin C. Libicki, ‘What Is Information Warfare?’ Defence Technical Information Center, 1 August 1995, at https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA367662 (Accessed on 13 November 2023).

91. ‘The Supply of Disinformation Will Soon be Infinite’, at https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/09/future-propaganda-will-be-computer-generated/616400/ (Accessed on 22 May 2023).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Om Prakash Das

Om Prakash Das is Research Fellow in the Southeast Asia and Oceania Centre of the Manohar Parrikar Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses (MP-IDSA), New Delhi.

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