Self-Efficacy and Emotional Adjustment as Precursors of Smoking in Early Adolescence

Abstract

The aim of this study was to examine the associations between self-efficacy, emotional adjustment, and smoking in a large sample of early adolescents cross-sectionally and short-term longitudinally. A prospective sample was used consisting of 1861 12–13-year-olds at 11 secondary schools. Questionnaires were administered at baseline and at a follow-up 6 months after the baseline assessment. Findings showed that higher depressive mood, low self-esteem, and low self-efficacy appeared to be related to enhanced levels of smoking in cross-sectional analyses. Short-term longitudinal analyses indicated that depressive mood and self-esteem were only related to the onset of smoking in girls. In three out of four cross-sectional analyses, self-efficacy × emotional adjustment interactions revealed that in particular adolescents with low levels of self-efficacy and low levels of emotional adjustment are likely to smoke.

Keywords:

• depression
• self-esteem
• self-efficacy
• adolescents
• smoking
• gender

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Rutger C. M. E. Engels

Rutger C. M. E. Engels is a professor and director at the Institute for Family and Child Care Studies, Radboud University, the Netherlands. He obtained his Ph.D. at the Department of Medical Sociology, Maastricht University in 1998. Since then he has worked for three years as a post-doc and assistant professor at the Department of Child and Adolescent Studies, Utrecht University. Currently, he is involved in research on smoking, drinking, delinquency, and drug use of adolescents, peer and parental factors, and depression.

William W. Hale

William W. Hale III a clinical psychologist, is an assistant professor at the Department of Child and Adolescent Studies, Utrecht University, the Netherlands. He obtained his Ph.D. at the Department of Biological Psychiatry, University of Groningen in 1997, on his work on non-verbal behaviors and clinical depression. Since then he has worked as both an assistant professor and a cognitive-behavioral therapist for Maastricht University and later for Utrecht University. Currently, he is involved in research on adolescent depression and anxiety, and the effects peer and parental factors have on these pathologies.

Marc Noom

Marc Noom is an assistant professor at the Department of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychopathology, University of Leiden, the Netherlands. He obtained his Ph.D. at the Department of Child and Adolescent Studies, Utrecht University. His research interests include adolescent autonomy, parental and peer influences on adolescent problem behavior, and youth care.

Hein de Vries

Hein de Vries is professor in cancer prevention and health promotion at the Department of Health Education and Health Promotion, University of Maastricht, the Netherlands. He obtained his Ph.D. at this department in 1989. Since then he has worked as a director of the Maastricht Research Centre Place on Cancer Prevention. His research interests theoretical research about determinants of health behavior using the Integrated Model for Behavioral Change looking at both proximal factors (cognitions), intermediary factors (awareness perceptions and processes of change), and distal factors [communication, social (network) factors, parental factors]. Behaviors of interest include smoking, exercise, alcohol, nutrition, screening, early detection, and AIDS.