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ABSTRACT
This article argues, through examples drawn mainly from the Sutta Piṭaka, that the Pali texts are characterised by an empirical realism that avoids neither the grim realities of conflict nor the underlying forces that drive it. Suttas such as the Cakkavatti-sīhanāda Sutta and the Mahā-dukkha-kkhanda Sutta are obvious examples of this realism. So also is the Aṅgulimāla Sutta, which deals with the phenomenon of a serial killer. Other texts examine causation, the Mahā-nidāna Sutta, for instance, which applies Buddhist causation theories to conflict and other forms of disruption in society. All focus on the almost intractable nature of conflict, when greed, hatred and delusion are embodied within human cultures and communities, producing diverse constructions of reality, fed by papañca, proliferating thought. I will argue that the empirical realism shown by texts such as the above can throw light on some of the bitter contexts of armed conflict that Buddhists are caught up in within the contemporary world, as combatants, humanitarian workers or members of civilian communities. They point to the difficulties that can arise, for instance, when humanitarian workers seek to enter zones of armed conflict to protect civilians and to encourage compliance with international humanitarian law (IHL) as set out in customary law and treaties such as the Geneva Conventions and its Additional Protocols. The strength of the diverse constructions of reality present can mean that IHL, and also the demands of compassion, are subordinated to other concerns. This article therefore argues that Buddhism offers not only tools for effective compliance with IHL within situations of armed conflict, but also an analytical model for understanding why some contexts of armed conflict are resistant to the principles embodied in this law. It also suggests a primary initial role for external authorities in guarding against IHL abuses, before armed services personnel can cultivate mindful inner discipline in line with Buddhist ideals.
Disclosure statement
This article has been supported by the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC).
Abbreviations
A. Aṅguttara-nikāya; as translated by Bhikkhu Bodhi, The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Aṅguttara Nikāya, Bristol: Pali Text Society, 2012.
D. Dīgha-nikāya; as translated by M. Walshe, The Long Discourses of the Buddha, Boston: Wisdom, 1995.
Dhp. Dhammapada; as translated by V. J. Roebuck, The Dhammapada, London: Penguin, 2010.
M. Majjhima-nikaya; as translated by Ñāṇamoli Bhikkhu and Bodhi Bhikkhu, The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha. Boston: Wisdom, 1995.
S. Saṃyutta-nikāya; as translated by Bhikkhu Bodhi, The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Saṃyutta Nikāya. Boston: Wisdom, 2000.
Sn. Suttanipāta, translated by K. R. Norman, The Group of Discourses (Sutta Nipāta), 2nd ed. Oxford: Pali Text Society, 2001.
Translations in this article are those of the above. Reference to A., D., M. and S. are to volume and page number of the Pali Text Society editions of the Pali text, as indicated in the translations (Pali page numbers are shown in square brackets within the translation). For Dhp. and Sn. reference is to verse number.
Notes
1. Empirical work and empirical judgements are based on direct observation and experience rather than theory. I use the phrase ‘empirical realism’ in this article to denote the ability of the Pali texts to represent violence and conflict, through the empirical, namely through what can be observed through the senses, resulting in a graphic and sometimes disturbing realism.
2. See also S.II.118, which describes the consequences of ignorance, one of the causes of craving, in terms of a swelling or surging: ‘Bhikkhus, the ocean surging causes the rivers to surge; the rivers surging cause the streams to surge; the streams surging causes the lakes to surge; the lakes surging cause the pools to surge. So too, ignorance surging causes volitional formations to surge; volitional formations surging causes consciousness to surge; consciousness surging causes name-and-form to surge; name-and-form surging causes the six sense bases to surge [etc.]…’.
3. Many more discourses could be mentioned that describe dissension and quarrelling within the monastic Sangha, e.g. the Sāmagāma Sutta (At Sāmagāma; M.II.243–251) and the Upakkilesa Sutta (On Imperfections or Corruptions; M.III.153–162).
4. For instance, see Sunakkhatta Sutta (To Sunakkhatta) M.II.252–261.
5. Lederach (2001).
6. I have written on papañca before and draw from these sources: see Harris (1994, 27–30) and Harris (2017).
7. See for example the Aggivacchagotta Sutta (To Vacchagotta on Fire; M.I.483–489) and the Dīghanaka Sutta (To Dīghanaka: M.I.497–501) for a critique of the view that ‘This alone is truth’.
8. One text illustrates anger with reference to snakes, a figure that is a familiar one in this article. A person who is quick to anger, for instance, but whose anger does not last long is like a snake that is possessed of poison but is not fiercely poisonous, and a person who is neither quick to anger nor has anger that lasts long is like a snake that is neither fierce nor venomous (A.II.110–111). Anger is thus also seen as a negative quality that poisons any situation or body politic.
9. ICRC (2018, 67).
10. For example, see the Harvey and Trew articles in this volume.
11. The importance both of moral values rooted in culture or religion and law/authority is stressed in ICRC (2018, e.g. 35 and 65).
12. See for example the Kodha Vagga (Chapter on Anger) in the Dhammpada (vv. 221–234).
13. See for instance the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, D.II.123–24.
14. See e.g. the Harvey article in this volume.
15. See ICRC (2018, 9 and 32).
16. See for instance Dhammapada v. 321: ‘Folk take the tamed one into battle; The king mounts the tamed one. The tamed one, who endures abusive speech, is the best among human beings’ (Dhp. 321).
17. ICRC (2004, 16).
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Elizabeth J. Harris
Elizabeth J. Harris is an Honorary Senior Research Fellow within the Cadbury Centre for the Public Understanding of Religion, Birmingham University; before this, she was an associate professor in Religious Studies at Liverpool Hope University. She holds a doctorate in Buddhist studies from Kelaniya University, Sri Lanka, and is currently President of the UK Association for Buddhist Studies. She has written widely in the disciplines of Buddhist studies and interreligious studies. Her latest monograph is Religion, Space and Conflict in Sri Lanka: Colonial and Postcolonial Contexts (Routledge, 2018).