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ABSTRACT
Against the promise that new trade corridors in Africa lead to political stability and state control, this article presents a contradictory case. In the context of the implementation of the LAPSSET corridor, Moyale at the Kenyan–Ethiopian border has been undergoing a transformation. The formerly marginalized border town is today envisioned as a major trade hub for the region. However, this development has been recurrently disturbed not only by trade barriers and import regulations but also by violent clashes between local communities. Moyale’s history, economic rivalries, and an intra-federal boundary dispute make the new corridor a specifically dangerous setting for the local population, while alternative smuggle routes are perceived as more reliable and secure. The text provides insights into ethnographic research in a particular violent surrounding. Qualitative interviews and participant observations were conducted with locals and border officials in Moyale during clashes between the Borana and Garre communities in 2018. The article aims to understand trade and security strategies on the ground, which are far from being controlled by state monopoly.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Dr Eric Kioko, Dr Halkano Abdi Wario, Prof. Michael Bollig, Prof. David Anderson, Prof. Martin Zillinger and Prof. Michaela Pelican for helpful advice during this research project, which I conducted in the context of my dissertation. Furthermore, I am grateful for the support by the a.r.t.e.s. graduate school of the University of Cologne. Special thanks go to my husband, Tsegay Alem Hagos.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 Stepputat and Hagmann, “Politics of Circulation”; and Kochore, “The Road to Kenya.”
2 Stepputat and Hagmann, “Politics of Circulation,” 796.
3 Mains, “Neoliberal Times.”
4 Behrends et al., Travelling Models.
5 Chome et al., “Demonstration Fields.”
6 Mkutu et al., “Future Visions.”
7 In their future visions, Kenya and Ethiopia both focus on infrastructure and economic transformation (Mosley and Watson, “Frontier Transformations”).
8 Marete and Walter, “Why Moyale Post is Trade Barrier.” Business Daily Africa, 27 September 2022. https://www.businessdailyafrica.com/bd/economy/why-moyale-post-is-trade-barrier-3962712.
9 Nugent and Soi, “One-Stop Border Posts.”
10 The Dubai reference to express the future vision of Moyale and Marsabit can also be found elsewhere (e.g. Kochore “The Road to Kenya”). It highlights the increasing Middle East inspiration for African countries and a shift away from the West (Mosley and Watson, “Frontier Transformations”).
11 Cited in “Kenya, Ethiopia Sign Pact to End Moyale Border Conflict.” Citizen TV, 7 December 2015. https://www.citizentv.co.ke/news/kenya-ethiopia-ink-deal-to-end-moyale-border-conflict-108170.
12 E.g. Mkutu et al., “Future Visions.”
13 Adugna, “Overlapping Nationalist Projects,” 782–4; and Kefale, Federalism, 108–28.
14 Abbink, “Ethnicity and Conflict”; Bassi “Politics of Space”; and Kefale, Federalism.
15 Apart from local sources, another challenge for describing events in and around Moyale is the questionable neutrality of literary sources, when even scientific analysts seem to take sides for “their” studied communities (Baxter et al., Being and Becoming Oromo, 9–10, 17–18).
16 Interview with resident of Moyale, October 2018.
17 Mixed group of Kenyans with Arab origin and Somali minorities.
18 Schlee, “Identities on the Move,” 3–4.
19 Kefale, Federalism, 109.
20 Schlee, “Changing Alliances,” 223.
21 Turton, Pastoral Tribes, 278; Bassi, “Returnees,” 51; and Oba, Nomads in the Shadows of Empires, 22–5.
22 Oba, Nomads in the Shadows of Empires, 137–9.
23 Turton, Pastoral Tribes, 395.
24 Schlee, “Identities on the Move,” 44.
25 McEwen, International Boundaries, 103.
26 Turton, Pastoral Tribes, 302.
27 Helland, “Political Viability,” 142–5; and Oba, Nomads in the Shadows of Empires, 59–70.
28 Oba, Nomads in the Shadows of Empires, 139.
29 Adugna, “Making Use of Kin,” 50.
30 Bassi, “Politics of Space,” 228.
31 Oba, Nomads in the Shadows of Empires, 174.
32 Anderson and Rolandsen, Politics and Violence.
33 Murunga, “Conflict in Somalia,” 146.
34 Whittaker, “Insurgency and Counterinsurgency.”
35 Yihun, “Ethiopian Foreign Policy.”
36 Bassi, “Politics of Space,” 229.
37 Adugna, “Making Use of Kin,” 51.
38 Helland, “Political Viability,” 149.
39 Galaty, “Boundary-Making,” 110.
40 Adugna, “Overlapping Nationalist Projects.”
41 Schlee, “Changing Alliances,” 213.
42 Schlee, “Unequal Citizenship,” 63.
43 In the course of the introduction of ethnic federalism, 14 regions were created along ethnic and linguistic lines: Amharic killils, meaning ‘reserves’ or ‘fenced territories’ (Abbink, “Ethnicity and Conflict,” 393).
44 Abbink, “Ethnicity and Conflict”; Bassi, “Politics of Space”; and Kefale, Federalism.
45 Adugna, “Making Use of Kin,” 47.
46 Kefale, Federalism, 2–3.
47 Ibid., 41.
48 Schlee, “Unequal Citizenship,” 64.
49 Lentz, Ethnicity, 3.
50 Baxter et al., Being and Becoming Oromo, 8.
51 Moore, “Ethno-Territoriality,” 103.
52 Bazzi and Gudgeon, “Political Boundaries,” 236.
53 Schlee, “Changing Alliances.”
54 Korf and Raeymaekers, Violence on the Margins, 10.
55 Kefale, Federalism, 112.
56 Adugna, “Overlapping Nationalist Projects,” 778.
57 Bassi, “Politics of Space,” 230; and Kefale, Federalism, 110–18.
58 Oba, “Shifting Identities,” 120.
59 Bassi, “Politics of Space,” 232.
60 Schlee, “Changing Alliances,” 222.
61 Bassi, “Politics of Space,” 230–1.
62 Bassi, “Returnees,” 41.
63 Schlee, “Changing Alliances,” 208.
64 Abbink, “Ethnicity and Conflict,” 392.
65 Nugent and Asiwaju, African Boundaries; and Feyissa and Hoehne, Borders and Borderlands.
66 Moore, “Ethno-Territoriality.”
67 Henok, The Endless Battle of Moyale. 16 November 2018. https://www.mydansaadventures.wordpress.com/2018/11/16/the-endless-battle-of-moyale.
68 Horne, “Why is Kenya’s Government Silent on Ethiopia Crackdown?” Human Rights Watch, 2018. https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/03/24/why-kenyas-government-silent-ethiopia-crackdown; Ogola, “Thousands Flee into Kenya to Escape Ethiopia Violence.” UNHCR, 28 March 2018. https://www.unhcr.org/news/stories/2018/3/5abbbb404/thousands-flee-kenya-escape-ethiopia-violence.html.
69 Schlee, “Unequal Citizenship,” 66.
70 A narcotic plant.
71 Adugna, “Making Use of Kin.”
72 Africa News, “Oromo Militia Behind Attacks on Somalis in Ethiopia’s Moyale.” 15 November 2018. https://www.africanews.com/2018/11/15/oromo-militia-behind-attacks-on-somalis-in-ethiopia-s-moyale.
73 Aljazeera, “Ethnic Violence Forces Thousands from Ethiopia into Kenya.” 22 December 2018. https://www.aljazeera.com/videos/2018/12/22/ethnic-violence-forces-thousands-from-ethiopia-into-kenya.
74 ‘Trade’ or ‘business’ in Swahili.
75 Schlee, “Changing Alliances.”
76 Kochore, “The Road to Kenya,” 501.
77 Nail, Theory of the Border, 2.
78 Bassi, “Politics of Space,” 242.
79 Interview with resident of Moyale, November 2018.
80 Kefale, Federalism, 3.
81 Cited in Shongolo, “Poetics of Nationalism,” 286–8.
82 Kenya24News, “Marsabit Leaders Protest Over Closure of Border Routes.” 2019. https://www.kenya24news.com/kenya/marsabit-leaders-protest-over-closure-of-border-routes/105403-news.
83 van Schendel and Abraham, Illicit Flows.
84 Little, “Unofficial Trade.”
85 Belayneh et al., “Cross-Border Contraband Trade,” 73.
86 Kochore, “The Road to Kenya,” 500.
87 Kefale, Federalism, 109.
88 Adugna, “Overlapping Nationalist Projects,” 783.
89 Amborn, “Burji,” 91.
90 Wario, Networking the Nomads, 178 f.
91 Amborn, “Burji.”
92 Chome et al., “Demonstration Fields,” 304.
93 Stepputat and Hagmann, “Politics of Circulation,” 796.
94 Mkutu et al., “Future Visions,” 707.
95 Wedekind, “Anatomy of a White Elephant”; and Business Daily, “Will Kenya-Ethiopia Border Post Plan Spur Bilateral Trade?” 11 February 2020. https://www.businessdailyafrica.com/corporate/shipping/Will-Kenya-Ethiopia-border-post/4003122-5451970-rgs1f0/index.html.
96 Marete and Walter in Business Daily (op cit).
97 Mumbere, “ ONLF Rebels Disarm, Sign Agreement with Somali State.” Africa News, 9 February 2019. https://www.africanews.com/2019/02/09/ethiopia-onlf-rebels-disarm-sign-agreement-with-somali-state.
98 Abbink, “Ethnicity and Conflict,” 403.
99 Addis Standard, “Days After Officials Vow Renewed Offensives on Armed Group in Oromia, Fighting Reported in Ethiopia’s Moyale Environs.” 4 April 2022. https://addisstandard.com/news-days-after-officials-vow-renewed-offensives-on-armed-group-in-oromia-fighting-reported-in-ethiopias-moyale-environs.