Immunotherapy: Constructive Approach for Breast Cancer Treatment

Abstract

A novel and rapid therapeutic approach is the treatment of human breast cancer by enhancing the host’s immune system. In initial findings, program death one (PD-1) and program cell death ligand one (PD-L1) showed positive results towards solid tumors, but tumor relapse and drug resistance are the major concerns. Breast cancer therapy has been transformed by the advent of immune checkpoint blockades (ICBs). Triple-negative breast cancers (TNBCs) have exhibited enduring responses to clinical usage of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICBs) like atezolizumab and pembrolizumab. Nonetheless, a notable proportion of individuals with TNBC do not experience advantages from these treatments, and there is limited comprehension of the resistance mechanisms. Another approach to overcome resistance is cancer stem cells (CSCs), as these cells are crucial for the initiation and growth of tumors in the body. Various cancer vaccines are created using stem cells (dendritic, whole cell, bacterial) and focus primarily on targeting tumor-related antigens. The ultimate objective of cancer vaccines is to immunize the patients by active artificial immunity against cancer, though. In this review, we primarily focused on existing immunotherapeutic options, immune checkpoint blockers, the latest progress in understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying resistance to immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICBs), advanced strategies to overcome resistance to ICBs, cancer stem cell antigens and molecular markers, ongoing clinical trials for BCs and cancer vaccines for breast cancer.

Keywords:

• breast cancer
• cancer stem cell
• immunotherapy
• cancer therapy

Abbreviations

PD-1, Program death one; PD-L1, Program cell death ligand one; CSCs, Cancer stem cells; TME, Tumor microenvironment; NK, Natural killer; MHC, Major histocompatibility complex; NKG2D, Natural killer group 2D; CTLA4, Cytotoxic T-Lymphocyte-Associated Antigen 4; APCs, Antigen-presenting cells; IL-2, Interleukin-2; IFN, Interferon; TAAs, Tumor-associated antigens; TSAs, Tumor-specific antigens; BCSCs, Breast cancer stem cells.

Author Contributions

The author played a substantial role in the review, whether in the conception, design, or all of these aspects. They all participated in creating, revising, and providing critical input to the article. Additionally, they collectively approved the final version for publication and reached a consensus on the journal in which the review was submitted. Furthermore, all authors are committed to taking responsibility for every aspect of the work.

Disclosure

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Additional information

Funding

This research was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under grant No. 81772002 and Shenzhen Science, Technology, and Innovation Commission under grant No. JCYJ20170818143334365 and No. JCYJ20170818092553608.