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Abstract
This article presents the prevalence of stimulant doping among Brazilian athletes, the analytical approaches used, as well as a general evolution of the detectability of the stimulants being used. Results from the Brazilian accredited doping control laboratory are compared with the global statistics disclosed by the World Anti-Doping Agency. The high prevalence of stimulant doping in Brazil can be attributed to several reasons, including “self-administration,” a “body-shaping” culture, and the use of nutritional supplements.
THE AUTHORS
Henrique Marcelo Gualberto Pereira received his bachelors’ degree and his PhD in chemistry from the Chemistry Institute of Rio de Janeiro Federal University. He is currently a Professor of analytical chemistry at the same University. He received a scholarship for research from the National Council of Scientific and Technologic Development—CNPq, Ministry of Science and Technology, Brazil. He has been a member of the Rio de Janeiro Doping Control Laboratory since 1997, working under WADA accreditation since 2005. He was trained in analytical methodologies in different doping control laboratories around the world. His primary interests include analytical toxicology, doping control, chromatography, and mass spectrometry. He participated in the doping control analysis of several international competitions, including the XV Pan-American Games in 2007.
Vinicius Figueiredo Sardela received his bachelor's degree in pharmacy at Rio de Janeiro Federal University in 2009 and a Master degree in Science from the Chemistry Institute of Rio de Janeiro Federal University in 2013. He has been a member of the Rio de Janeiro Doping Control Laboratory since 2004. He received a complementary scientific formation from Ghent University in Belgium with an emphasis on liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry in 2011. His primary interests include detection of different doping agents such as sympathomimetic agents and proteins. He participated in the doping control analysis of several international competitions, including the XV Pan-American Games in 2007 and the London Olympic Games in 2012.
GLOSSARY
Anti-Doping Control: All steps and processes from test distribution planning through to ultimate disposition of any appeal including all steps and processes in between such as provision of whereabouts information, sample collection and handling, laboratory analysis, therapeutic use exemptions, results management, and hearings.
Anti-Doping Laboratory: The Brazilian Anti-Doping Laboratory is mandated to implement human doping control in sports. Founded in 1989, the laboratory is specifically focused in the analytical segment for detection of drugs in human biological fluids. In almost 24 years of work, over 43,000 samples have been analyzed for doping control purposes for several national and international competitions.
Athletes’ Information: Athletes’ urine samples were collected during sporting events. The samples received by the laboratory are anonymous, containing only the information about gender, sports, and medications used (when declared by the athlete). In Brazil, approximately 80% of the samples were obtained from male futebol/football/soccer athletes.
Doping Agents: Doping agents are any substances which have been consensualized to unfairly improve athlete sporting performance, including doping masking agents and illicit drugs. The term is also used in the case of substances that do not promote the performance increase, but that endanger the health of athletes. The official Prohibited List of substances and methods is maintained by World Anti-Doping Agency. The list classifies substances as anabolic agents, peptide hormones, growth factors, beta-2 agonists, hormone and metabolic modulators, diuretics, and other masking agents, stimulants, narcotics, cannabinoids, and glucocorticosteroids. Some substances are prohibited only in particular sports: beta-blockers and alcohol. The prohibited methods are manipulation of blood and blood components, chemical and physical manipulation, and gene doping. For the present study, all stimulant agents listed by WADA were evaluated.
Stimulant Class:
Stimulants: Substances that act directly on the central nervous system increasing wakefulness, locomotion, alertness, competitiveness, aggressiveness, and physical performance, and decreasing fatigue. The adverse effects of the abuse of stimulants include paranoia, irritability, restlessness, anxiety, heart failure, and may include the development of addiction.
Pharmacological Aspects: Stimulants exert their effects through a number of different pharmacological mechanisms. These mechanisms are the same as those activated by naturally released epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine during stress, and include enhancement of norepinephrine (noradrenaline) and/or dopamine activity (e.g., via monoamine transporter inhibition), adenosine receptor antagonism, and nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonism.
Doping Properties: Stimulants allow continuous use of the muscle system with reduced weariness. Stimulant drugs are also associated with an increased ability to concentrate and enhanced mental focus during training and exercise. In addition, the metabolic effects and increased motor activity from stimulant use allows more energy availability in muscles permitting greater performance in endurance sports.
Types of Drugs:
Recreational Drugs: Substances with pharmacologic effects that are taken voluntarily for personal pleasure or satisfaction rather than for medicinal purposes. They are used with the intention to create or enhance the recreational experience.
“Over-the-Counter” (OTC) Drugs: Medicines sold directly to a consumer, without a prescription from a healthcare professional. These drugs are often offered on the shelves of stores like any other packaged product. As a general rule, over-the-counter drugs are to be used primarily to treat a condition that does not require the direct supervision of a physician and must be proven to be reasonably safe and well tolerated.
“Body Image Drugs”: Substances taken by people with the intention to improve their physical appearance and shape of the body usually without any associated exercise routine.
Adverse Analytical Finding (AFF): A report from a laboratory that identifies the presence of a prohibited substance or its metabolites or markers or evidence of the use of a prohibited substance and/or method.
Atypical Finding (ATF): A report from a laboratory or other WADA-approved entity which requires further investigation as provided by the International Standard for Laboratories or related Technical Documents prior to the determination of an Adverse Analytical Finding.
Chromatography: Separation techniques applied in complex mixtures that rely on the differential affinities of substances for mobile (usually gas or liquid) and stationary phases.
Derivatization: A technique used in chemistry which transforms a thermo-labile substance into a more stable compound.
Doping: Defined as the occurrence of one or more of the antidoping rule violations. Use of substances or methods described in the WADA prohibited list.
Fat Burners: Thermogenic products that promote weight loss as the main objective.
Mass Spectrometry: A technique for the analysis of a substance in which the molecule is subjected to ionization and fragmentation in order to provide a series of ions.
Stimulants: Drugs which induce temporary improvements in the mental and/or the physical function.
Suspect Sample: Sample presenting a presumptive finding.
World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA): Tηε World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) is an international independent foundation, led by The International Olympic Committee, was created in 1999 through a collective initiative of the sports movement and governments, which funds it equally to effect “doping.” Its key activities include scientific research, education, development of antidoping control capacities and monitoring the World Ant-Doping Code. WADA accredits doping control laboratories around the world.
Notes
2 The journal's style utilizes the category substance abuse as a diagnostic category. Substances are used or misused; living organisms are and can be abused. Editor's note.
3 Aiming to reach the quality level necessary to perform the antidoping control in the 2016 Olympic Games, the new antidoping Brazilian laboratory (LBCD–LADETEC) will start to operate in June 2014 in a new facility. LAB DOP–LADETEC interrupted its operation in August 2013, being outside the accreditation of WADA since that time.
4 The reader is referred to Hills's criteria for causation which were developed in order to help assist researchers and clinicians determine if risk factors were causes of a particular disease or outcomes or merely associated. (Hill, A. B. (1965). The environment and disease: associations or causation? Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine 58: 295–300.). It is also necessary to distinguish between an active substance's pharmacological effects and a user's “drug experience” which is the outcome of the dynamic, complex interaction between the “drug”, the context, or site of its use and the person and his/her “set.” Zinberg, N. E. (1984). Drug, Set, and Setting: The Basis for Controlled Intoxicant Use. New Haven: Yale University Press. Editor's note.
5 The reader is asked to consider the implications of policies being created and sustained based upon theories, generalizable empirically based outcomes, “principles of faith”, traditions, stakeholder agendas, economic, political, religious, retribution–rehabilitation oriented, considerations, etc. and whether they are random, arbitrary, unchanging, flexible, etc. The underpinnings for WADA's “punishments” are not clearly delineated. Editor's note.