https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7897-3537
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Abstract
The article explores the interplay between transnational migration, cultural patrimony and political conflict, tying together the former realms of the Russian and Ottoman Empires. It discusses the role played by Russian Jews in the development of the Zionist-Arab conflict in Palestine until 1948. It focuses on the Northern Sharon, where three distinct immigrant groups – Circassians, Bosnians and Russian Jews – settled in the 1870s–1890s. Methodologically, it adopts a new, twofold, approach to the genesis of the conflict, by tracing its roots within the broader setting of Eurasian transnational migrations to Palestine, and the stricter context of ‘locality expressing glocality’, that is, of specific colonies and their development under internal pressures and outside interactions. In 1948, prior actions aimed at achieving ethnic homogeneity through coerced population transfers during the disintegration Eurasian imperial polities served as a blueprint for some of the same Zionist immigrants for achieving plurality in their new Jewish State.
Acknowledgments
The author presented earlier drafts of this article at two international conferences: ‘Collapsed Empires, Post-colonial Nations and the Construction of Historical Consciousness: Infrastructures of Memory after 1917’ (Complutense University of Madrid, 15–17 November, 2017) and ‘Narrating Exile in and between Europe and the Ottoman Empire/modern Turkey’ (University of Amsterdam, 11–12 November 2021). The author would like to thank the organizers and participants in these conferences for their insightful comments. He would also like to thank the interviewees of the Palestine Rural History Project (PRHP) for sharing their knowledge with him, and the staff of the Haganah Archive, the Central Zionist Archives and the Hadera Municipal Archive (‘the Khan Archives’) for their kind help in accessing sources over the years.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
1 See, for example, some works about the moshavot: I. Ro’i, ‘Jewish-Arab Relations in the Colonies of the First Aliyah’, in E. Eliav and Y. Rozental (eds), Sefer ha-ʿAliyah ha-Rishonah [Book of the First Aliyah] (Jerusalem: Ben-Zvi Institute, 1981), pp.245–68; Aryeh L. Avineri, The Claim of Dispossession: Jewish Land-Settlement and the Arabs 1878–1948 (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1984); A.S. Al-Qatshan, ‘Harakat al-Istitan al-Sahyunni fi al-Rif al-Filastini 1882–1948 [The Zionist Settlement Movement in the Palestinian Countryside 1882–1948]’, Al-Aqsa University Journal (Humanities Series) Vol. 10, no. 2 (2006), pp.116–49.
2 O.J. Salamanca, M. Qato, K. Rabie, and S. Samour, ‘Past is Present: Settler Colonialism in Palestine’, Settler Colonial Studies Vol. 2, no. 1 (2012), pp.1–8; D. Lloyd, ‘Settler Colonialism and the State of Exception: The Example of Palestine/Israel’, Settler Colonial Studies Vol. 2, no. 1 (2012), pp.59–80; Lorenzo Veracini, ‘The Other Shift: Settler Colonialism, Israel, and the Occupation’, Journal of Palestine Studies Vol. 42, no. 2 (2013), pp.26–42; Rashid Khalidi, The Hundred Years’ War on Palestine: A History of Settler Colonialism and Resistance, 1917–2017 (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2020).
3 See, for example, Joshua Meyrowitz, ‘The Rise of Glocality: New Senses of Place and Identity in the Global Village’, in János Kristóf Nyíri (ed.), A Sense of Place: The Global and the Local in Mobile Communication (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2004), pp.21–30; Victor Roudometof, ‘The Glocal and Global Studies’, Globalizations Vol. 12, no. 5 (2015), pp.774–87.
4 See, for example, Sallie Westwood and Annie Phizacklea (eds), Trans-Nationalism and the Politics of Belonging (London: Routledge, 2000), pp.1–13; A. Wimmer and N.G. Schiller, ‘Methodological Nationalism and the Study of Migration’, European Journal of Sociology/Archives Européennes de Sociologie Vol. 43, no. 2 (2002), pp.217–40; Andreas Wimmer and Nina Glick Schiller. ‘Methodological Nationalism, the Social Sciences, and the Study of Migration: An Essay in Historical Epistemology 1’, International Migration Review Vol. 37, no. 3 (2003), pp.576–610; T. Lyons, ‘Conflict-Generated Diasporas and Transnational Politics in Ethiopia: Analysis’, Conflict, Security & Development Vol. 7, no. 4 (2007), pp.529–49; Nina Glick Schiller, A Global Perspective on Transnational Migration: Theorizing Migration without Methodological Nationalism (Oxford: Centre on Migration, Policy and Society, University of Oxford, 2009); I. Sirkeci, ‘Transnational Mobility and Conflict’, Migration Letters Vol. 6, no. 1 (2009), pp.3–14.
5 Omer Bartov and Eric D. Weitz, Shatterzone of Empires: Coexistence and Violence in the German, Habsburg, Russian, and Ottoman Borderlands (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2013).
6 Yuval Ben-Bassat, ‘Proto-Zionist—Arab Encounters in Late Nineteenth-Century Palestine: Socioregional Dimensions’, Journal of Palestine Studies Vol. 38, no. 2 (2009), pp.42–63; Y. Ben-Bassat, ‘Conflicting Accounts of Early Zionist Settlement: A Note on the Encounter Between the Colony of Rehovot and the Bedouins of Khirbat Duran’, British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies Vol. 40, no. 2 (2013), pp.139–48; Y. Ben-Bassat, ‘Rural Reactions to Zionist Activity in Palestine before and after the Young Turk Revolution of 1908 as Reflected in Petitions to Istanbul’, Middle Eastern Studies Vol. 49, no. 3 (2013), pp.349–63; Y. Ben-Bassat and G. Alroey, ‘The Zionist–Arab Incident of Zarnuqa 1913: A Chronicle and Several Methodological Remarks’, Middle Eastern Studies Vol. 52, no. 5 (2016), pp.787–803.
7 In the Late Ottoman period, Jews also interacted with Circassian and Maghrebi-Algerian immigrants in the Hula Valley and Ramat Yavniel/al-Shafa al-Gharbi, west of Tiberias.
8 Derek Hopwood, The Russian Presence in Syria and Palestine, 1843–1914: Church and Politics in the Near East (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969).
9 Itamar Katz and Ruth Kark, ‘The Church and Landed Property: The Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem’, Middle Eastern Studies Vol. 43, no. 3 (2007), pp.383–408.
10 Paul W. Werth, The Tsar's Foreign Faiths: Toleration and the Fate of Religious Freedom in Imperial Russia (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014).
11 Inna Shtakser, The Making of Jewish Revolutionaries in the Pale of Settlement: Community and Identity during the Russian Revolution and its Immediate Aftermath, 1905–07 (New York: Palgrave, 2014).
12 Simon Rabinovitch, Jewish Rights, National Rites: Nationalism and Autonomy in Late Imperial and Revolutionary Russia (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2014).
13 Shmuel Ettinger and Israel Bartal, ‘The First Aliyah: Ideological Roots and Practical Accomplishments’, in Jehuda Reinharz and Anita Shapira (eds), Essential Paper on Zionism (New York: New York University Press, 1996), pp.63–93.
14 Bartov and Weitz, Shatterzone of Empires, pp.1–23.
15 Zeynel Abidin Besleney, The Circassian Diaspora in Turkey: A Political History (London and New York: Routledge, 2019), pp.52–82; David Grossman, Rural Arab Demography and Early Jewish Settlement in Palestine: Distribution and Population Density during the Late Ottoman and Early Mandate Periods (London: Routledge, 2017), pp.70–71.
16 Nina Seferović and Darryl Li, ‘The Herzegovinian Muslim Colony in Caesarea, Palestine’, Journal of Palestine Studies Vol. 45, no. 1 (2015), pp.76–83.
17 Avineri, Claim of Dispossession; Musa A. Abu Bakr and A. Masud, Milkiyyat al-Aradi fi Mutasarrifiyyat al-Quds, 1858–1918 [Land Ownership in The Mutasarrifiyya of Jerusalem, 1858–1918] (Amman: Shuman, 1996); Yossi Ben-Artzi, Early Jewish Settlement Patterns in Palestine, 1882–1914 (Jerusalem: Ben-Zvi Institute, 1997); Grossman, Rural Arab Demography.
18 Yitzhak Shechter, ‘Land Registration in Eretz-Israel in the Second Half of the 19th Century’, Cathedra Vol. 45 (1987), pp.147–60.
19 For discussion of the historical geography of these regions and its diverse populations, see C. R. Conder and H.H. Kitchener, The Survey of Western Palestine. Samaria (London: PEF, 1882) pp.1–74, 133–219, 250–275; Tuvia Ashkenazi, Dor, Qesariyah u-Wadi-Hawarit: Mehqar Histori ve-Etnografi [Dor, Qisarya and Wadi al-Hawarith: A Historical and Ethnographic Study] (Berlin and Tel Aviv: Schtibel, 1931); Grossman, Arab Village, pp.139–176; Iflah, ‘Local Dispute’, pp.17–20. On the existing social-economic structures of this region before the Circassian, Bosnian and Jewish migrations, see Beshara Doumani, Rediscovering Palestine: Merchants and Peasants in Jabal Nablus, 1700–1900 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), and Farid al-Salim, A Social History of Provincial Palestine: The History of Tulkarm in the Late Ottoman Period (1876–1914) (PhD dissertation, University of Arkansas, 2008).
20 Conder and Kitchener, Samaria, pp.30–31.
21 Itzhak Schecter, ‘Land Registration in Eretz-Israel in the Second Half of the 19th Century’, Cathedra Vol. 45, no. 13 (1987), p.152.
22 Laurence Oliphant, Haifa or Life in Modern Palestine (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1887), pp.182–85.
23 Omri Lesh and Eli Shiler, ‘The Settlement of the Bosnians in the Land of Israel’, Ariel Vol. 204–205 (2014), pp.55–68; Zvi Ilan, ‘The Bosnian Settlement in Caesarea’, Cardom Vol. 18 (1981), pp.57–63; Ilan, ‘Turkmen, Circassians and Bosnians in the Northern Sharon’, in D. Grossman, A. Degani, and A. Shmueli (eds), The Sharon, between Yarkon and Carmel (Tel Aviv: Ministry of Defense, 1990), pp.279–87.
24 L. Loewe, A Dictionary of the Circassian Language (London: George Bell, 1854), p.xxviii.
25 Ilan, ‘Turkmen’, p.280.
26 Ihsan al-Nimr, Ta’rikh Nablus wa-l-Balqa’ [History of Nablus and the Balqa’] (Nablus: n. pub., n.d.), vol. 3, pp.35–36.
27 Israel State Archives (ISA), file nun-pey-1/389.
28 E.B. Ayal, ‘The Founders of Hadera: A Case of Ideological Migration’, in Papers in Jewish Demography, 1989: Proceedings of the Demographic Sessions Held at the 10th World Congress of Jewish Studies (Jerusalem: Avraham Harman Institute of Contemporary Jewry, Hebrew University of Jerusalem; World Union of Jewish Studies, Association for Jewish Demography and Statistics, 1989), pp.247–50; Ayala Brodetzki-Tamari, ‘The Hadera Land Acquisition and the Issue of the Ottoman “Musha” Way of Ownership’, The Khan 4 (2010), pp.12–55.
29 Over his quest for the ‘redemption of the land’, Hankin acquired 75,000 hectares of land for Jewish settlement, resulting in the evacuation of dozens of Arab villages and estates formerly owned by absentee landlords. Although compensated, the tenants felt dispossessed and their opposition to Zionist settlement intensified over the land issue. See Muhammad Suwaed, ‘The Wadi al-Hawarith Affair (Emek Hefer): Disputed Land and the Struggle for Ownership: 1929–33’, Middle Eastern Studies Vol. 52, no. 1 (2016), pp.135–52.
30 L.Y. Schneerson, Mepi Rishonim [According to the Founders] (Tel Aviv: ʿAm ha-Sefer, 1963); early drafts of the book are preserved in Schneerson’s private papers at National Library of Israel, ARC. 4* 1504.
31 Schneerson, Mepi, pp.20, 99, 126.
32 Schneerson, Mepi; Noam Nahshon, ‘A Revised Study of the Project of Draining the Hadera Swamps (The Case of the Rushrashi Swamp)’, The Khan 4 (2010), pp.204–15.
33 Seferović and Li, ‘Caesarea’, p.79; Ayala Brodetzky-Tamari, ‘The First Residents of Hadera and their Relations with the Bosnians’, Ariel Vol. 204–205 (2014), pp.69–70.
34 Schneerson, Mepi, p.158.
35 Yair Auron, The Banality of Indifference: Zionism and the Armenian Genocide (London and New York: Routledge, 2017), p.210.
36 Ibid.; Schneerson, Mepi, pp.185–86.
37 Monty Noam Penkower, ‘The Kishinev Pogrom of 1903: A Turning Point in Jewish History’, Modern Judaism Vol. 24, no. 3 (2004), pp.187–225. Compare Nathan Weinstock’s on ‘The Impact of Zionist Colonization on Palestinian Arab Society before 1948’, Journal of Palestine Studies Vol. 2, no. 2 (1973), pp.51–52.
38 John D. Klier and Shlomo Lambroza (eds), Pogroms: Anti-Jewish Violence in Modern Russian History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004); Shlomo Lambroza, ‘Jewish Self-Defense during the Russian Pogroms of 1903–1906’, in Herbert A. Strauss (ed.), Hostages of Modernization: Austria-Hungary-Poland-Russia (Berlin and Boston: De Gruyter, 2011), pp.1244–56.
39 Yaacov N. Goldstein, ‘The Jewish‐Arab Conflict: The First Jewish Underground Defence Organizations and the Arabs’, Middle Eastern Studies Vol. 31, no. 4 (1995), pp.744–54.
40 Schneerson, Mepi, pp.170–72, 194–95; B.Z. Dinur, Y. Slutsky, and S. Avigur, Sefer Toldot ha-Haganah [The Book of the History of the Haganah] (Vol. I, pt. I, Tel Aviv: ha-Sifriyah ha-Tsiyonit, 1954), p.230; ‘Imanu’el Kokhavi and Oren Elyashiv, The Haganah in Hadera (Hadera: Inar, 1989), pp.13–20; Iflah, ‘Local Dispute’, pp.23–24.
41 Ayala Brodetzky-Tamari, ‘The Relationship between the Farmers and the Agricultural Labourers in Hadera’, The Khan 5 (2015), pp.137–65; J. Kolatt, ‘The Jewish Labour Movement in Israel: Between East and West’, Proceedings of the World Congress of Jewish Studies (1969), II, pp.295–307; Dinur, Slutsky and Avigur, Sefer, I, i, pp.239–41.
42 Al-Nimr, Ta’rikh, p.37; Ilan, ‘Turkmen’, p.281.
43 Amjad Sami ʿArif Abu Mukh, Sharif Yusif ʿUmar Masarwa and Jamil Ahmad Zamil Qiʿdan, Sanabil min ʿAbaq al-Ta’rikh wa-l-Turath [Ears of Wheat Fragrant with History and Heritage] (Vol. I, Baqa al-Gharbiyya: Al-Qassemi Academy, 2020), p.714.
44 Oral testimonies of Khalil Hasan al-Dhib ‘Ayyat (b. 1936), former resident of ʿArab Barrat Qisarya, Baqa al-Gharbiyya 15 September 2017, and of Muhammad Hafez Qeysi, former resident of Qisarya and ʿArab al-Mifjer (b. 1914), 27 July 2017; PRHP.
45 For examples, see Central Zionist Archives (Jerusalem, henceforth: CZA) files L18/5664, J15/8295, J15/3781/16, J15/2173-2175, J15/12240, J15/2062, and compare to Danin's report about Ali bek Bushnaq in E. Danin. Y. and Shimoni, Documents and Portraits from the Arab Gangs Archives in the Arab Revolt in Palestine (1936–1939) (Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1981), p.141.
46 Iflah, ‘Local Dispute’, pp.15–16, 33.
47 Herbert C. Kelman, ‘The Interdependence of Israeli and Palestinian National Identities: The Role of the Other in Existential Conflicts’, Journal of Social Issues Vol. 55, no. 3 (1999), pp.581–600; Seferović and Li, ‘Caesarea’, pp.70–71 and pp.74–75.
48 Andreas Kappeler, The Russian Empire: A Multi-ethnic History (Harlow, England: Longman, 2001); Nicholas Doumanis, Before the Nation: Muslim-Christian Coexistence and Its Destruction in Late-Ottoman Anatolia (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013); Eric Lohr, Nationalizing the Russian Empire: The Campaign Against Enemy Aliens during World War I (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003).
49 For recent Israeli scholarship about the First World War in the Sharon, see Eran Tirosh (ed.), The Sharon and the Launch of the Megiddo Campaign in the First World War (Jerusalem: Ariel and the Society for the Heritage of World War One in Israel, 2015).
50 Roy Marom, ‘A World War in Local Perspective: Arab and Jewish Narrations of the First World War in the Sharon Plain’, in Eran Tirosh (ed.), The Sharon…, pp.29–47.
51 Ya‘akov Shavit, ‘Joseph Davidescu: Excerpts from the Diary of a Spy, 1918’, Cathedra Vol. 36 (1985), pp.181–96; Anita Engle, The NILI Spies (London and Portland: Frank Cass, 1997), pp.169, 195, 210.
52 About Schneerson’s espionage career, see L.Y. Schneerson, Mi-Yomano shel Ish NILI [From the Diary of a NILI Member] (Haifa: Renaissance, 1967); Auron, Banality, pp.178–79.
53 ‘Private’, 1955, National Library of Israel, Schneerson’s personal archive: ARC. 4* 1504.
54 Jabotinsky Institute's Archive, Personal archive no. 281, file 8/1; 8 November – 11 November 1919, and a similar report in CZA, file L4/767.
55 CZA, file L4/767.
56 Sir Thomas Haycraft, Palestine: Disturbances in May, 1921: Reports of the Commission of Inquiry with Correspondence Relating Thereto (London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1921), pp.5–16; Nina Rodin, ‘The 1921 Arab Attack: A Traumatic Event for Hadera’, The Khan Vol. 4 (2010), pp.215–44; Schneerson, Mepi, pp.150–56; Kokhavi and Elyashiv, The Haganah, pp.25–28; Hillel Cohen, Army of Shadows: Palestinian Collaboration with Zionism, 1917–1948 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008), p.81.
57 Haycraft, Disturbances, p.6.
58 Ibid., p.54.
59 A petition submitted to the Chief Secretary on the occasion of his visit to Tulkarm in October 1921 (report dated 2 October 1921), Haganah Archives, 80/pey145/6.
60 Johan Franzéén, ‘Communism versus Zionism: The Comintern, Yishuvism, and the Palestine Communist Party’, Journal of Palestine Studies Vol. 36, no. 2 (2007), pp.6–24.
61 Mona Younis, Liberation and Democratization: The South African and Palestinian National Movements (Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press, 2000), p.117.
62 Eldad Harouvi, Palestine Investigated: The Criminal Investigation Department of the Palestine Police Force, 1920–1948 (Eastbourne, Chicago: Sussex Academic Press, 2016), pp.18–21.
63 Haganah Archives, CID files 47/465; 47/481: documents no. 296–299; 47–482: document nos. 304–337.
64 ‘Khaderah, 23-4-24’, Haganah Archives, file 47/465. Ben Tsvi was active in al-Zughraniyya, a former Bosnian estate that was sold to the Jewish Colonisation Association (JCA). It became a Jewish settlement inhabited by ikarim and their Arab workers: Muhammad Aql, Bilad al-Ruha: Watan wa-Judhur [Bilad al-Ruha: Homeland and Roots] (Self-published, 2016), pp.121–23; Nimr Sarhan and Mustafa Kabha, Bilad al-Ruha fi Fatrat al-Intidab al-Baritani: al-Sindiyana numudhjan [Bilad al-Ruha During the British Mandate Period: Al-Sindiyana as a Test Case] (Ramallah: Dar al-Shuruq, 2001), p.44.
65 J. Beinen, ‘The Palestine Communist Party 1919–1948’, MERIP Reports Vol. 55 (1977), pp.3–17; Musa Budeiri, The Palestine Communist Party, 1919–1948: Arab and Jew in the Struggle for Internationalism (Chicago: Haymarket Books 2010); Merav Mack, ‘Orthodox and Communist: A History of a Christian Community in Mandate Palestine and Israel’, British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies Vol. 42, no. 4 (2015), pp.384–400.
66 Jonathan Frankel, Prophecy and Politics: Socialism, Nationalism, and the Russian Jews, 1862–1917 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981).
67 Rabinovitch, Jewish Rights.
68 Kokhavi and Elyashiv, The Haganah, p.35.
69 Mustafa Kabha, Bashir al-Ibrahim, Qadi and Rebel in the 1936–1939 Revolution (Ramallah: Dar al-Shuruq, 2001); Cohen, Army of Shadows, pp.95–168.
70 Yoav Gelber, Growing a Fleur-de-Lis: The Intelligence Services of the Jewish Yishuv in Palestine 1918–1947 (Tel Aviv: Ministry of Defense, 1992), pp.161–214. See also oral testimony of Ahron Selaʿ, one of the heads of the SHAI, Haganah Archive, no. 140.04.
71 Yaʿakov Sharett, ʿEzra Danin: Tsioni be-Khol Tnai [Ezra Danin: An Unconditional Zionist] (Jerusalem: Kiddum, 1987), I, pp.1–56. See also Ezra Danin's personal papers, Haganah Archive, file 80/pey58/10.
72 Sharett, ʿEzra, I, pp.118–56; Cohen, Army of Shadows, pp.156–58.
73 Sharett, ʿEzra, I, pp.129–32; Gelber, Growing, pp.157–59.
74 Danin's undated lecture about the Arab Revolt, Haganah Archive, file 31–117; ʿA. Ben-Buzi [pseudonym, Ezra Danin], ‘Gormei ha-Hashpaʿa ba-Kfar ha-ʿAravi be-Eretz Israel lifnei Meʿoraʿot 1936–39’ [Determining Factors in the Arab Village in Palestine before the 1936–1939 Disturbances], Ba-ma‘arakha Vol. 2–3 (July 1940), pp.63–67; Danin and Shimoni, Documents ([1944] 1981).
75 Danin and Shimoni, Documents, p.141. Compare to Sirhan and Kabha, Bilad al-Ruha, pp.50–51 and Aql, Bilad al-Ruha, pp.167–69.
76 Cohen, Army of Shadows, pp.195–96; Barrat Qisarya (Geremy Forman and Alexandre Kedar, ‘Colonialism, Colonization and Land Law in Mandate Palestine: the Zor al-Zarqa and Barrat Qisarya Land Disputes in Historical Perspective’, Theoretical Inquiries in Law Vol. 4, no. 2 (2003), pp.491–540); Raml Zeita (Martin Gardner Hoffman, The Consequential Existence of Indigenous People: Zionist settlement in 1920s Palestine (MA dissertation, McGill University, 2012)); ʿArab al-Damaira (Iflah, ‘Local Dispute’), ʿArab al-Nufayʿat (Ben-Dor, ‘The Trial of Hadera V. Arab-il-Nufiat Tribe: 1929–1948’, The Khan Vol. 4 (2010), pp.56–118); Wadi al-Hawarith (Suwaed, ‘Wadi al-Hawarith’). For Kh. al-Sarkas, see ISA, file pey15/339, ‘Ajjaj vs. PICA [1947], PICA vs. residents of Kh. al-Sarkas, 1944.
77 See, for example, the minutes of a meeting involving David Ben Gurion, Gad Machnes, Yosef Weitz and Ezra Danin, 1939, file 80/pey58/23.
78 Ilan Pappé, The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine (Oxford: Oneworld, 2006), p.20.
79 Danin's personal papers, Haganah Archive, file 80/pey58/5,6.
80 Benny Morris, The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. xvi, no. 178 and p.245; Seth Frantzman, ‘Strange Bedfellows: The Bosnians and Yugoslav Volunteers in the 1948 War in Israel/Palestine’, Istorija Vol. 20, no. 1 (2009), pp.189–201; Darko Trifunovic, Serbian-Israeli Relations (Novi Sad: n. pub., 2019), ch. ‘Israel and Yugoslavia at a crossroad (1947–1949)’ (pp.65–80).
81 Ellen Jenny Ravndal, ‘Exit Britain: British Withdrawal from the Palestine Mandate in the Early Cold War, 1947–1948’, Diplomacy & Statecraft Vol. 21, no. 3 (2010), pp.416–33; David Tal, War in Palestine: Israeli and Arab Strategy and Diplomacy (London: Routledge, 2019).
82 Morris, Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, p.130; compare to Walid Khalidi, All That Remains: The Palestinian Villages Occupied and Depopulated by Israel in 1948 (Washington, DC: Institute for Palestine Studies, 1992), pp.183–84, and primary documents: From 01112 to Tene (ʿA), ‘Qeysaria’, 12 January 1948; from 01112 (Dayag) to Tene (ʿA), ‘Qeysaria’, 20 January 1948; from 02112 (Dayag) to Tene (ʿA), ‘Qeysaryia’, 9 February 1948, Haganah Archives, file 105/215.
83 ‘Summary of the Meeting of the Advisors for Arab Affairs’, 6 April 1948, IDF Archives (Tel ha-Shomer), file 125 – 4663/1949.
84 Morris, Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, p.126; from Tiroshi (Eitan) to Tene (ʿA), ‘Sherkes’, 19 February 1948, Haganah Archives, file 105/72. For previous Arab demands to evacuate, see, Un-authored, Undated, ‘Sherkes’; from 01112 (Madaʿ) to Tene (ʿA), ‘the Village of Sherkes’, 19 January 1948, Haganah Archives, file 105/215.
85 Morris, Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, pp.245–47; Contracts for private settlement on Arab lands in Qaqun, Kh. al-Manshiya (ʿAttil), Kh. Zalafe and Wadi al-Hawarith, Haganah Archive, file 80/pey58/4.
86 ʿEzra Danin, Yosef Weitz, and Zalman Lifshits, ‘Settlement of the Arab Refugee Problems’, 31 October 1948, Haganah Archive, file 80/pey58/13, pp.30–31. For Danin’s later account of this period, see Sharett, ʿEzra, I, pp.297–359.
87 Compare with Pappé, Ethnic Cleansing, p.220.
88 Benny Morris, ‘Yosef Weitz and the Transfer Committees, 1948–49’, Middle Eastern Studies Vol. 22, no. 4 (1986), pp.522–61.
89 Lif (Lifshitz), Zalman’s personal archive, CZA/A402.
90 Haganah Archive, file 80/pey58/13.
91 Danin, Weitz and Lifshits report, pp.2–4. The twentieth century cases of the Armenians, Assyrians, Greeks, Turks, Bulgarians, and Germans were discussed in greater detail: appendices 1, 2, and 3.
92 Compare to Ronald Sanders, The High Walls of Jerusalem: A History of the Balfour Declaration and the Birth of the British Mandate for Palestine (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1984).
93 Bartov and Weitz, Shatterzone; Oren Yiftachel, Ethnocracy: Land and Identity Politics in Israel/Palestine (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006).