An alternative approach to total economy of the late Ottoman Empire

Abstract

The Ottoman Empire until the eve of the First World War gave the impression of an agrarian society with modest manufacturing activities, mainly based on craft-based production. A major difficulty was to supply food for the army for a long time in total war conditions. This was an important indicator for the new leaders of Ottoman bureaucracy to develop a nationalist economic view. With an intention to enhance further argument, this study implies that the Ottoman officials with their strong ties to Young Turk Movement would have pursued a nationalist economy regardless of the total war status. So, this study proposes that the war and rising nationalism were not the sole reasons for creating a national economy, but merely footsteps along the way.

Keywords:

• Total war
• national economy
• Community of Union and Progress
• Ottoman Empire
• First World War

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Notes

1 Hans Speier, ‘Ludendorff: Topyekûn Savaşa İlişkin Alman Kavramı’ [Ludendorff: The German Concept of Total War] in Edward Meadle Earle (ed.), Modern Stratejinin Ustaları [Makers of Modern Strategy] (Istanbul: Doruk Yayınları, 2015), pp.416–30. Mehmet Beşikçi, ‘Bir Yenilginin Anatomisi: Balkan Harbi’nde Osmanlı Seferberliği 1912–1913’ [Anatomy of a Defeat: Ottoman Mobilization in Balkan War 1912–1913] in Kahraman Şakul (ed.), Yeni Bir Askeri Tarih Özlemi: Savaş Teknoloji ve Deneysel Çalışmalar [Longing for a New Military History: War, Techonology and Experimental Studies] (Istanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, 2013), p.299.

2 Alan S. Milward, War, Economy and Society 1939–1945 (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1980), p.4.

3 Mehmet Beşikçi, p.299.

4 Carl V. Clausewitz, On war (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1984), p.184.

5 Jeremy Black, Great Powers and the Quest for Hegemony (New York: Routledge, 2007) p.100.

6 Clausewitz, p.238.

7 Roger Chickering and Stig Föster (eds), Great War, Total War, Combat and Mobilization on the Western Front, 1914–1918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p.153.

8 Clausewitz, p.238.

9 Black, p.100.

10 Mehmet Beşikçi, ‘Son Dönem Osmanlı Harp Tarihi ve “Topyekûn Savaş” Kavramı’ [Late Ottoman History and the Total War Concept], Toplumsal Tarih Vol. 198 (2010), pp.62–69.

11 Şevket Pamuk, Türkiye'nin 200 Yıllık İktisadi Tarihi [200 Years of Economic History of Turkey] (Istanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 2015), pp.164–65.

12 For studies that focus on the war economy policies of the CUP see Zafer Toprak, Türkiye’de ‘Milli İktisat’ 1908–1918 [National Economy in Turkey: 1908–1918] (Ankara: Yurt Yayınları, 2012). Zafer Toprak, Milli İktisat Milli Burjuvazi [National Economy – National Bourgeois] (Istanbul: Tarih Vakfi Yurt Yayınları, 1995). Zafer Toprak, İttihad Terakki ve Cihan Harbi Savaş Ekonomisi ve Türkiye’de Devletçilik [Community Of Union and Progress and World War Economy and Statism in Turkey] (Istanbul: Homer Kitabevi, 2003). Tarık Zafer Tunaya, Türkiye’de Siyasal Partiler-III [Political Parties in Turkey-III] (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2009). Şevket Pamuk, ibid. İlhan Tekeli and Selim İlkin, Cumhuriyetin Harcı Köktenci Modernitenin Ekonomik Politikasının Gelişimi [Mortar of the Republic: The Development of Economical Policy of Radical Modernity] (Istanbul: Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2010). Ali Akyıldız, Anka'nın Sonbaharı [The Autumn of Anka] (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2005). Ufuk Can Akın, Türkiye’de Milli İktisat Dönemi’nin Ulus Devletin İnşasına Etkisi [The influence of the National Economy Period on the Building of the Nation State in Turkey] (Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, 2007). Muharrem Öztel, II. Meşrutiyet Dönemi Osmanlı Maliyesi [Ottoman Finance during the Second Constitutional Period] (Istanbul: Kitabevi Yayınları, 2009). Mustafa Balçık, İttihat ve Terakki Dönemi İktisadi Hayat ve Maliye Nazırı Cavid Bey [Economic Life During Community of Union and Progress and Cavid Bey the Minister of Finance] (Ankara: Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Atatürk İlkeleri ve İnkılap Tarihi Enstitüsü, 1998). Donald Quataert, The Ottoman Empire 1700–1922 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005). Somer Alp Şimşeker, ‘İttihat ve Terakki Cemiyeti'nin Ekonomi Politikalarında Topyekûn Harbin Etkisi ve Kara Kemal Bey'in Yeri’ [The Effects of Total War on the Economy Policies of Community of Union and Progress and the Role of Kara Kemal] (Unpublished master’s thesis, Istanbul: Harp Akademileri, Harp Tarihi ve Strateji A.B.D, 2015). Şükrü Hanioğlu, Preparation for a Revolution: The Young Turks 1902–1908 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001). To understand the role of the press and propaganda for economic purposes, please see Arthur Marwick, War and Social Change in the Twentieth Century (London: Red Globe Press, 1974).

13 Mustafa Aksakal, The Ottoman Empire: Road to First World War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009).

14 Friedrich List, National System of Political Economy (Philadelphia: JB Lippincott, 1856), pp.72–73.

15 Taha Parla, Ziya Gökalp, Kemalizm ve Türkiye’de Korporatizm (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 1999), p.7

16 Eric Hobsbawm, Industry and Empire: From 1750 to the Present Day (London: Penguin Books, 1968), p.40.

17 Christopher Freeman and Luc Soete, The Economics of Industrial Innovation (London: Pinter, 1997), p.92.

18 List, p.102.

19 Ibid., pp.38–40, 45, 72, 74.

20 For detailed information please see Aykut Kibritçioğlu, ‘Friedrich List’in Bebek Endüstriler Tezi’ [Baby Industries Thesis of Friedrich List], MPRA Paper, 2549 (1996), University Library of Munich, pp.49–81. Also Ebru Arıcıoğlu, ‘Kalkınma Kavramına Küreselleşme Perspektifinden Bir Bakış’ [A Look at the Concept of Development from the Perspective of Globalization], Niğde Üniversitesi İİBB Dergisi Vol. 5, no. 1 (2012), pp.36–53.

21 John David Rose, Rescuing Capitalism from Corporatism: Greed and The American Corporate Culture (Indiana: AuthorHouse, 2005), p.34. For detailed information please see Bahadır Eser and H.Yüksel, ‘Korporatizm, Faşizm ve Solidarizm Kavramları Ekseninde Erken Dönem Cumhuriyet Siyasası Üzerine Bir İnceleme’ [An Investigation on Early Republican Politics in the Axis of Corporatism, Fascism and Solidarism Concepts], Uluslarası Yönetim ve İşletme Dergisi Vol. 8, no. 16 (2012), pp.181–200.

22 Leo Panitch, ‘Emek stratejisi üzerine düşünceler’ [Thoughts on Labor Strategy], Praksis Vol. 8 (2011), pp.91–124.

23 J.H. Wiarda, Corporatism and Comparative Politics: The Other Great “Ism” (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1997), p.89.

24 C. Teulings and J. Hartog, Corporatism or Competition?: Labour Contracts, Institutions and Wage Structures in International Comparison (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1998), p.97.

25 Alexander Hamilton, Report on the Subject of Manufactures (New York: Cosimo, 2007), pp.4–27, 71. The report was presented to the US Congress for the first time on 5 December, 1791. Also, for detailed information on comparison between List and Hamilton please see Aykut Kibritçioğlu.

26 Roderic H. Davison, Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856–1876 (Princeton: Princeton University Press,1963), p.17.

27 İlber Ortaylı, İmparatorluğun En uzun Yılı [Longest Century of the Empire] (Istanbul: Timaş Yayınları, 2014), p.41.

28 Pamuk, p.89.

29 Ortaylı, p.150.

30 Pamuk, p.92.

31 Ibid., pp.88–89.

32 Ibid., pp.83–90.

33 Erik Jan Zürcher, Turkey: A Modern History (London: I.B Tauris, 2004), p.51

34 Niyazi Berkes, The Development of Secularism in Turkey (Montreal: McGill University Press,1998), p.145.

35 Azmi Özcan, ‘Osmanlıcılık’ [Ottomanism], Türk Diyanet Vakfı İslam Ansiklopedisi Vol. 33 (2007), pp.485–87.

36 Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), p.96.

37 Berkes, p.153.

38 Pamuk, pp.104–05.

39 Tanıl Bora and Murat Gültekingil, Modern Türkiye'de Siyasi Düşünce Liberalizm [Political Thought in Modern Turkey: Liberalism] (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2005), p.28.

40 Çağlar Keyder, Türkiye’de Devlet ve Sınıflar [State and Class in Turkey] (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 1989), p.45

41 Çağlar Keyder, ‘Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nda Büyük Ölçekli Ticari Tarım Var Mıydı?’ [Was There Large-Scale Commercial Agriculture in the Ottoman Empire?] in Çağlar Keyder and Faruk Tabak (eds), Osmanlı’da Toprak Mülkiyeti ve Ticari Tarım [Land Ownership and Commercial Agriculture in the Ottoman Empire] (Istanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, 2012), pp.11, 39.

42 Fehmi Yılmaz, ‘Mehmet Genç ile Osmanlı’da Devlet ve Ekonomi Üzerine’ [On the State and the Economy in the Ottoman Empire with Mehmet Genç], Türkiye Araştırmalar Literatür Dergisi, Vol. I, no. I (2003), pp.369–84.

43 Proto-industrial organizations similar to those in the West can be found in cities such as Aleppo and Thessaloniki and in regions like Thessaly of the Ottoman Empire. Socrates D. Petmezas, ‘Patterns of Proto industrialization in the Ottoman Empire, the Case of Eastern Thessaloniki, 1750–1860’, The Journal of European Economic History, January (1991), pp.575–604.

44 Ersoy Zengin, ‘Osmanlı’dan Cumhuriyet’e Erzurum’da Silah Üretim Tarihine Bakış ve Erzurum Silah Tamirhanesi; Firdevsoğlu Kışlası İş Ocağı’ [A Look at the History of Weapons Production in Erzurum from the Ottoman Empire to the Republic and Erzurum Weapons Repair Shop: Firdevsoğlu Barracks Work Quarry], 100. Yıl Münasebetiyle I. Dünya Savaşı’nda Kafkas (Doğu) Cephesi Uluslararası Sempozyumu’ (25–27 Eylül 2014, Erzurum) [International Symposium of the Caucasian (Eastern) Front in the First World War on the Occasion of the Hundredth Anniversary (25–27 September 2014, Erzurum] (Ankara: Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi Yayınları, 2015).

45 Zeynep Sabancı and Şeyda Özçelik Kanat, ‘Designing the Ottoman Warfare Industry: Turkish Response to Innovations in Small Arms Technology; Conversion and Interchangeability’, Questions of History Vol. 10 (2021), pp.166–81.

46 Mehmet Seyitdanlıoğlu, ‘Tanzimat Dönemi Osmanlı Sanayii 1839–1876’ [The Ottoman Industry in the Tanzimat Era 1839–1876], Tarih Araştırmaları Dergisi Vol. 28, no. 46 (2009), pp.53–69.

47 Donald Quataert, ‘Tanzimat Döneminde Ekonominin Temel Problemleri’ [Main Problems of the Economy During the Tanzimat Period] in Mehmet Seyitdanlıoğlu and Halil İnalcık (eds), Tanzimat/Değişim Sürecinde Osmanlı İmparatorluğu [The Ottoman Empire in the Tanzimat/Change Process] (Istanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 2014), pp.729–40.

48 Ali Akyıldız, Anka'nın Sonbaharı, p.249.

49 Mübahat S. Kütükoğlu, Osmanlı İktisadi Yapısı, Osmanlı Devleti Tarihi, Cilt II [Ottoman Economic Structure, The History of Ottoman Empire, Vol. II] (Istanbul: Feza Gazetecilik A.Ş, 1999), pp.641–42.

50 Vedat Eldem, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun İktisadi Şartları Hakkında Bir Tetkik [A Study on the Economic Conditions of the Ottoman Empire] (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1970), pp.272–73.

51 Ibid., pp.272–73.

52 Arzu Terzi, ‘Hazine-i Hassa’ [Private Treasury], Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslam Ansiklopedisi, Vol. 17, pp.137–38.

53 Toprak, p.66.

54 Ece Özçeri, Displaying the Empire: A Search for Self Representation of The Ottoman Empire in the International Exhibitions of the 19th Century (Unpublished Master’s thesis, Ankara: ODTÜ, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, 2014), p.54.

55 Toprak, pp.76–77.

56 Pamuk, p.104.

57 Toprak, Milli İktisat-Milli Burjuvazi, p.11.

58 Toprak, Türkiye'de Milli İktisat 1908–1918, p.373.

59 Selçuk Akşin Somel, ‘Osmanlı Reform Çağında Osmanlıcılık Düşüncesi’ [Ottomanism Thought During the Ottoman Reform Era (1839–1913)] in Tanıl Bora and Murat Gültekingil (eds), Modern Türkiye’de Siyasi Düşünce: Cilt 1 Cumhuriyet’e Devreden Düşünce Mirası: Tanzimat ve Meşrutiyetin Birikimi [Political Thought in Modern Turkey: Vol. 1 The Legacy of Thought Transferred to the Republic: The Accumulation of the Tanzimat and the Constitutional Monarchy] (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2009), p.104.

60 Ibid., p.104 and Azmi Özcan, p.486.

61 Berkes, p.143.

62 Selçuk Akşin Somel, p.104.

63 Ibid., p.110.

64 ‘Tedâbir-i zaruriyye-i maliyye’ [Urgent Indispensable Preventions], Tasvir-i Efkar, 22 Temmuz 1330/4 August 1914, p.3.

65 Tekin Alp, ‘İktisadî Kalkınmamız ve Yeni Devletçiliğimizin Umdeleri’ [Principles of Our Economic Development and New Statism] in Nevin Coşar (ed.), Türkiyede Devletçilik (Istanbul: Bağlam Yayınları, 1995), pp.73–75.

66 List, pp.72–73, 79; List refers to England as economically advanced country which could only benefit from free trade.

67 Ahmed Muhiddin, ‘Milli İktisat’ [National Economy], İslam Mecmuası, no.7, 12 Kanun-ı sânî 1332/27 January 1917, pp.1007–1010.

68 Ahmed Muhiddin, ‘Milli İktisat, Bu En Mübrem ve En Acil Vazifemizdir’ [National Economy, Our most Important and Most Urgent Duty], İslam Mecmuası, no. 37, 24 Eylül 1331/ 7 October 1915, pp.796–800.

69 Tekin Alp, ‘Harb Zamanında İstihsalât-ı Sınaiyyemiz’ [Our Industrial Reform in Wartime], İktisadiyat Mecmuası, Year: 1, no. 44–48, 8 Mart 1333/8 March 1917, p.38.

70 Yusuf Akçuraoğlu, ‘İktisat’ [Economy], Türk Yurdu, Year: 6, Vol. 12, no. 12, 2 Ağustos 1333/2 August 1917, p.21.

71 Taha Parla, Ziya Gökalp, Kemalizm ve Türkiye’de Korporatizm [Ziya Gökalp, Kemalism and Corporatism in Turkey] (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 1999), p.7.

72 Liman Von Sanders, Türkiye’de 5 Yıl [Five Years in Turkey] (Istanbul: Burçak Yayınevi, 1968), p.439.

73 Feroz Ahmad, İttihatçılıktan Kemalizme [From Unionism to Kemalism] (Istanbul: Kaynak Yayınları, 2009), p.53.

74 Tekeli and İlkin, p.9.

75 Ahmad, p.40.

76 Toprak, Türkiye’de “Milli İktisat” 1908–1918, p.30.

77 Ibid., p.35.

78 Toprak, Milli İktisat-Milli Burjuvazi, p.29.

79 Toprak, İttihad Terakki ve Cihan Harbi Savaş Ekonomisi ve Türkiye’de Devletçilik, p.99.

80 Mübahat Kütükoğlu, Osmanlı İngiliz İktisâdi Münâsebetleri 1580–1838 [Ottoman British Economic Relations 1580–1838] (Ankara: Türk Kültürünü Araştırma Enstitüsü, 1974), pp.76–77.

81 Toprak, pp.175–77.

82 Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Cumhurbaşkanlığı Devlet Arşivleri Başkanlığı Osmanlı Arşivi (BOA), I.DUİT, 120–4, 125–20. (Presidency State Archives – Ottoman Archives) (These documents contain a summary of all the four established companies including their regulations and dated 15 Temmuz 1335/15 July 1919 and 11 Temmuz 1338/11 July 1922); see also ‘Ticaret ve Ziraat Nezareti, Memâlik-i Osmaniyye’de Osmanlı Anoniim Şirketleri’ [Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture, Ottoman Joint Stock Companies in Ottoman Lands], Istanbul, (1334), p.33. ‘Anadolu Milli Mahsulat şirketi’, Türk Yurdu, year 5, Vol. 9, no. 5, 5 Teşrin-i Sani 1331/18 November 1915, p.96 The date of establishment for Anadolu Milli Mahsulat Anonim Şirketi /Anatolian National Crops Ottoman Joint-Stock Company, 10 Ağustos 1331–22 August 1915.

83 BOA, ŞD, 1256/6. ‘Regulations for Anatolian National Crops Ottoman Joint-Stock Company’, the document is dated 11 August 1920/11 Ağustos 1336. Kemal, ‘İaşe Meselesi’ [ Issue of Provisions], Tanin, 28 October 1916/ 15 Teşrin-i Evvel 1332, p.2.

84 BOA İ.DUİT 120-4, 125-20, ŞD 1255-37, ‘Regulations on National Import Weighbridge Company’ 6 Ağustos 1916/24 Temmuz 1332 6 Ağustos 1916/24 Temmuz 1332 and MV. 241-91, 22 August 1915/09 Ağustos 1331.

85 BOA İ.DUİT 120-4, 125-20, ŞD. 1255-37, the document contains ‘Regulations on National Import Weighbridge Company’ and is dated 6 Ağustos 1916/24 Temmuz 1332 and MV. 241-91 22 August 1915/09 Ağustos 1331. ‘Milli İthalat Kantariye Anonim Şirketi’, Türk Yurdu, year 5, 29 Eylül 1332/12 Ekim 1916, p.48. The date for establishment of Milli İthalat Kantariye anonim şirketi/ National Import Weighstock Corporation: 24 Agustos 1332 6 Eylül 1916.

86 Tekeli and İlkin, p.19. ‘Milli Ekmekçi Anonim Şirketi’, İktisadiyyat Mecmuası, Vol. 1, no. 41, 26 Kanun-I sani 1332/ 9 December 1916, p.7.

87 BOA ŞD. 1257-35, ‘Regulations on National Textile Joint Stock Company’, 14 Mart 1922/14 March 1338.

88 BOA ŞD. 1272-30 ‘Document on the National Corporations established by Charity Organisations’ 5 Mayıs 1337/ 5 May 1921 and İ.DUİT 120-4.

89 ‘Konya Milli İktisat Bankası’ [Konya National Economy Bank] İktisadiyat Mecmuası, Year: 2, no. 52, 19 Nisan 1333/19 April 1917, p.6.

90 ‘İktisadiyyat Meclisi’ [Council of Economics], İktisadiyat Mecmuası, Vol. 1, no. 38 (29 Kanun-ı Evvel 1332/11 January 1917), pp.6–7.

91 Tekin Alp, ‘İktisadî teşkilat’ [Economic Organisation], İktisadiyat Mecmuası, year 2, no. 52 (19 Nisan 1333/19 Nisan 1917), pp.1–2.

92 Toprak, p.37.

93 Ibid., p.184.

94 Ahmad, p.53.

95 Zekeriya Demir, ‘Türkiye’de Milli Burjuvazinin Oluşturulmasına Yönelik Olarak Yapılan Çalışmalar (1923–1946)’ [Studies on the Formation of the National Bourgeoisie in Turkey (1923–1946)], Akademik İncelemeler Dergisi Vol. 17, no. 1 (2002), p.99.

96 Şevket Pamuk, ‘The Evolution of Financial Institutions in the Ottoman Empire, 1600–1914’, Financial History Review Vol. 11, no. 1 (2004), p.29

97 Sadık Erdaş, ‘Cumhuriyetin İlk yıllarında Aksaray ve Çevresinde Yerel Bankacılık Faaliyetleri ve Aksaray Halk İktisat Bankası Örneği’ [Local Banking Activities in and Around Aksaray in the First Years of the Republic and the Example of Aksaray Halk İktisat Bank], Journal of History Studies Vol. 10, no. 3 (2018), p.35

98 Ulaş Kipal and Özgür Uyanık, Türkiye Milli İktisat Tarihi [The History of National Economy in Turkey] (Istanbul: Kaynak Yayınları, 2001), p.33.

99 Sina Akşin, Jön Türkler ve İttihat ve Terakki [Young Turks and the Community of Union and Progress] (Istanbul: İmge Kitabevi, 2001), p.420.

100 Feroz Ahmad, İttihatçılıktan Kemalizme, pp.50–51.

101 Edward J. Erickson, I.Dünya Savaşı’nda Osmanlı 1914–1918 [The Ottoman Empire in the First World War, 1914–1918] (Istanbul: Timaş Yayınları, 2011), p.26.

102 Toprak, p.238.

103 Ibid., p.269.

104 İlhan Tekeli and Selim İlkin, p.12.

105 Ahmad, p.45.