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ABSTRACT
The staff members from the Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago who oversaw the excavations at Megiddo relied upon skilled Egyptian workmen (Quftis) as well as local labourers during their excavations from 1925–1939. However, although there were more than fifty of these Egyptian workmen in all, only a few are mentioned in the preliminary and final publications produced by the project. They are what Stephen Quirke has called ‘hidden hands’ on excavations; an example of ‘invisible labor’, as discussed by anthropologists and sociologists. In any effort to reconstruct the lives and labours of these men, we are now at the mercy of what can be found in various archival sources. Data must be gleaned from, for example, requests for half-price railway vouchers for travel between Kantara and Haifa for specific workmen each season; field diary entries; black and white photographs; and occasional mentions in budgets or in passing within letters sent back and forth between Megiddo and Chicago. Still, from this fragmentary information, we can piece together a picture of these unsung members of the expedition, some of whom were present at Megiddo for more seasons than the ever-rotating members of the Chicago staff themselves.
Acknowledgments
The topic under consideration here was initially stimulated by Stephen Quirke’s book Hidden Hands (2010) and reflects my conversations over email during the past several years with a number of colleagues concerning the Egyptian workmen who were part of the excavations at various sites. I am especially grateful to Aaron Brody, Felicity Cobbing, Melissa Cradic, Peter Der Manuelian, Wendy Doyon, Norma Franklin, Jack Green, Julian Hirsch, Barbara A. Keller, Allison Mickel, Sam Pfister, Joanne Rowland, Rachael Sparks, Emily Teeter, and Jeff Zorn for relevant information and/or for valuable feedback on preliminary versions of this article. Unless otherwise noted, the materials used and cited here are either in the IAA British Mandate archives (now posted online at: http://www.iaa-archives.org.il) or in the Museum Archives at the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago and are discussed here with permission. I am also grateful to Jacqueline Shipton Gooder (daughter of Geoffrey Shipton) and to Norma Franklin for their permission to reproduce the various images, which I have taken the liberty of colorizing for illustrative purposes; all of the images from Jacqueline Shipton Gooder come from her cousin Harry Parker’s personal photo album, which she inherited.
Disclosure Statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
1 Letter from Fisher to Breasted dated 29 May 1926 (in the OI Museum Archives: Directors Correspondence Box 058, Folder 016).
2 Quirke 2020. See now also, e.g., Sparks Citation2013; Rowland Citation2014; Doyon Citation2015; Irving Citation2017; Doyon Citation2018; Mickel Citation2019; Stevenson Citation2019; Green and Henry Citation2021; Mickel Citation2021.
3 I am happy to send a copy of the spreadsheet listing the various workmen by name and season(s) to anyone who might wish to see it. In the various documents referenced below, the names of the individual workmen are often spelled slightly differently over the years, most likely depending upon who was writing them down. Therefore, it is possible that I might have conflated two different individuals or, alternatively, separated one individual into two or more people because of the variant spellings. Hopefully that is not the case, but it is worth a cautionary note here. I have also not attempted to standardize the spelling of Arabic names or words but opted instead to follow the various iterations as written in the documents.
4 I thank Norma Franklin, Jeff Zorn, and Peter Der Manuelian for discussions on this topic and for their thoughts on the possible religious affiliations and college educations of these two men.
5 Note from Fisher regarding workmen for season dated 26 October 1925 and typed agreement by the Director of Antiquities dated 28 October 1925; both in IAA online archives, within folder labelled ‘Excavations at Megiddo by the University of Chicago, ATQ_169/12.’
6 See, e.g., Doyon Citation2015 and Citation2018 for discussions of the roles on excavations of such foremen (reis) and of Quftis as a whole; previously Quirke Citation2010 and Rowland Citation2014.
7 Letters from Fisher to Luckenbill dated 8, 21, and 24 July 1925; also letter from Fisher to Breasted dated 15 July 1925 (all in the OI Museum Archives: Directors Correspondence Box 053, Folder 038). See also Fisher Citation1929, 17.
8 Letters sent from DeLoach to his mother on 2 October and 11 November 1925 (courtesy of Carol DeLoach Fletcher).
9 Letters sent from Fisher to John Garstang, the Director of the Department of Antiquities, on 28 March 1926 and to the Director of Immigration and Travel on 29 March 1926; both in IAA online archives, within folder labelled ‘Excavations at Megiddo by the University of Chicago, ATQ_169/12.’
10 Strangely enough, even though Sorial is listed in the Megiddo final reports as having been present during the Spring 1926 season, he was actually at Tell en-Nasbeh, not at Megiddo. Fisher had requested permission for Sorial and four other Egyptian workmen to work at Nasbeh, rather than at Megiddo, and the final report from Nasbeh confirms that they were part of the Nasbeh team that season. See McCown Citation1947, 4; also, the formal letter sent by Fisher to the Director of Immigration and Travel on 29 March 1926 (in the IAA online archives, within the folder labelled ‘Excavations: Megiddo, ATQ_169/12’).
11 I note that Deeb Dawara is not known from any other records to have ever been at Megiddo, but his presence is confirmed by this photograph. I note further that there are additional workmen who are mentioned in the records as being present at Megiddo in 1926 but who are apparently not in the photograph; these include Awadalla Mohamed Gheith, Ambarak Ayab, Osman Allam, Ahmed Abd Minam, and Hannah Boulos. One (or more) of these may be standing to the right of Ahmed Weraida, for the name of the man who is cut in half by the right-hand edge of the photograph is not listed.
12 Letter from Fisher to the Director of Antiquities dated 26 March 1927 as well as earlier relevant materials from Fisher dated 4 and 11 March 1927; all in IAA online archives, within folder labelled ‘Excavations: Megiddo, ATQ_7/6.’
13 See Cline Citation2020, 61-62 for more details. We know the arrival date of the Egyptian workmen from a letter sent by DeLoach to Breasted dated 24 April 1927 (in the OI Museum Archives: Directors Correspondence Box 063, Folder 008).
14 Letter from Guy to Nelson dated 10 May 1927 and cable from Guy to Breasted dated 11 May 1927 (in the OI Museum Archives: Directors Correspondence Box 063, Folder 014); see also a letter from DeLoach to Breasted dated 20 May 1927 (in the OI Museum Archives: Directors Correspondence Box 063, Folder 008) and a letter sent the following year, on 12 July 1928, from Fisher to Breasted (in the OI Museum Archives: Directors Correspondence Box 069, Folder 029). See also the letters from Guy to the Chief Immigration Officer dated 14 May 1927 in IAA online archives, within folder labelled ‘Excavations: Megiddo, ATQ_7/6.’ We get a bit more of the story from the final publication of Tell en-Nasbeh, published years later by Chester McCown. In it, McCown notes that Sorial went back and forth between Megiddo and Nasbeh during Spring 1927, including during the troubles that erupted at Megiddo during the first weeks of their season; see McCown Citation1947, 6.
15 Two letters from Guy to the Chief Immigration Officer, both dated 14 May 1927; both in IAA online archives, within folder labelled ‘Excavations: Megiddo, ATQ_7/6.’
16 Letter from Breasted to Guy dated 18 June 1927 (in the OI Museum Archives: Directors Correspondence Box 063, Folder 014).
17 Letter from Guy to Breasted dated 13 August 1927 (in the OI Museum Archives: Directors Correspondence Box 063, Folder 014). Re Hassan Effendi, see also Guy Citation1931, vii; Lamon and Shipton Citation1939, ix; a letter from Breasted to DeLoach dated 26 April 1927 (in the OI Museum Archives: Directors Correspondence Box 063, Folder 008); a letter from Guy to Breasted dated 13 August 1927 (in the OI Museum Archives: Directors Correspondence Box 063, Folder 014); and the preliminary budget for 1927–28 attached to Guy’s letter to Breasted dated 14 December 1927 (in the OI Museum Archives: Directors Correspondence Box 063, Folder 014). See also a letter from Guy to Breasted dated 14 January 1928 (in the OI Museum Archives: Directors Correspondence Box 069, Folder 032), in which he states, ‘As you will have heard from De Loach, or Miss Woodley, Hassan Effendi wants to go to Italy [to] study art; he will thus not be coming back to us … ’
18 Letter from Guy to Breasted dated 13 August 1927 (in the OI Museum Archives: Directors Correspondence Box 063, Folder 014).
19 Letter from Guy to Breasted dated 13 August 1927 (in the OI Museum Archives: Directors Correspondence Box 063, Folder 014).
20 I am indebted for this information to Jeff Zorn, Aaron Brody, Melissa Cradic, and Sam Pfister, all currently or formerly associated with the Badè Museum and who are intimately familiar with these details.
21 Letter from Guy to Breasted dated 14 December 1927 (in the OI Museum Archives: Directors Correspondence Box 063, Folder 014).
22 For conversion figures, see: https://www.dollartimes.com/inflation/inflation.php?amount=1000&year=1925.
23 Letter sent from Guy to Breasted dated 14 January 1928 and reply from Breasted to Guy dated 24 January 1928 (in the OI Museum Archives: Directors Correspondence Box 069, Folder 032).
24 Letter sent from Guy to Breasted dated 28 June 1928 (in the OI Museum Archives: Directors Correspondence Box 069, Folder 032). See also a letter from Guy to Director of the Egyptian Passport Office dated 5 March 1929 (in the OI Museum Archives: Directors Correspondence Box 077, Folder 010).
25 Letter from Guy to Charles Breasted dated 3 December 1929 (in the OI Museum Archives: Directors Correspondence Box 077, Folder 010).
26 Letter from Guy to Breasted dated 30 December 1929 (in the OI Museum Archives: Directors Correspondence Box 077, Folder 010).
27 Letter from Guy to Breasted dated 12 March 1931 (in the OI Museum Archives: Directors Correspondence Box 098, Folder 001).
28 Letter from Guy to the Director of Antiquities dated 3 March 1931, with reply dated 7 March 1931; both in the IAA online archives, within folder labelled ‘Excavations: Megiddo. 1928-1929, 2nd Jacket ATQ_7/6.’
29 See the letter from Lambert, Director of Antiquities, to Guy dated 16 March 1932, as well as a letter from Guy to the Director of Antiquities dated 21 June 1932, with reply dated 24 June 1932, and a telephone message from Guy to the Director of Antiquities dated 4 October 1932, with approval dated the same day; all are in the IAA online archives, within the folder labelled ‘Excavations: Megiddo, 3rd Jacket ATQ_7/6.’
30 Letter from Loud to Matthews dated 7 March 1938 (in the OI Museum Archives: Directors Correspondence Box 174, Folder 010). There is also some question about four other workmen for whom Guy requested railway vouchers from Jerusalem to Kantara but who may or may not have been at Megiddo.
31 If either Fisher or Guy kept such a field diary, it has subsequently disappeared.
32 Entries dated 10–12 October 1935 in Loud Field diary (in the OI Museum Archives: Megiddo Expedition Box 007, Folder 004). See also letter from Loud to the Director of Antiquities dated 25 April 1936, in the IAA online archives, within folder labelled ‘Excavations: Megiddo, 4th Jacket ATQ_7/6.’
33 Field diary entries by Loud dating from October through December 1935 (in the OI Museum Archives: Megiddo Expedition Box 007, Folder 004) and a letter from Loud to Wilson dated 9 November 1935 (in the OI Museum Archives: Directors Correspondence Box 144, Folder 019).
34 Letter from Loud to Wilson dated 27 December 1936 (in the OI Museum Archives: Directors Correspondence Box 157, Folder 023). See also letter from Parker to the Director of Antiquities dated 8 April 1937, with approval given on 10 April 1937; both in the IAA online archives, within folder labelled ‘Excavations: Megiddo, 4th Jacket ATQ_7/6.’
35 Letter from Loud to Wilson dated 27 December 1936 (in the OI Museum Archives: Directors Correspondence Box 157, Folder 023).
36 Letter from Lamon to Breasted dated 1 October 1934 (in the OI Museum Archives: Directors Correspondence Box 131, Folder 002).
37 Field diary entry by Loud for 3 February 1937 (in the OI Museum Archives: Megiddo Expedition Box 007, Folder 004).
38 Field diary entries by Loud for 5-9 December 1937 (in the OI Museum Archives: Megiddo Expedition Box 007, Folder 006).
39 Letter from Parker to the Director of Antiquities dated 13 April 1938, with approval given on 16 April 1938; both in the IAA online archives, within folder labelled ‘Excavations: Megiddo, 4th Jacket ATQ_7/6.’
40 Letter from Loud to Wilson on 16 December 1937 (in the OI Museum Archives: Directors Correspondence Box 166, Folder 032).
41 Field diary entries by Loud for 27 and 30 December 1937 (in the OI Museum Archives: Megiddo Expedition Box 007, Folder 006).
42 Field diary entry by Loud for 8 January 1938 (in the OI Museum Archives: Megiddo Expedition Box 007, Folder 006).
43 Field diary entry by Loud for 11 January 1938 (in the OI Museum Archives: Megiddo Expedition Box 007, Folder 006) and letter from Loud to Matthews dated 12 January 1938 (in the OI Museum Archives: Directors Correspondence Box 174, Folder 010).
44 Field diary entry by Loud for 27 January 1938 (in the OI Museum Archives: Megiddo Expedition Box 007, Folder 006) and letter from Loud to Matthews dated 7 March 1938 (in the OI Museum Archives: Directors Correspondence Box 174, Folder 010).
45 Letter from Parker to the Director of Antiquities dated 13 April 1939, in the IAA online archives, within folder labelled ‘Excavations: Megiddo, 4th Jacket ATQ_7/6.’
46 Field diary entries by Loud for 27 December 1938 (in the OI Museum Archives: Megiddo Expedition Box 007, Folder 005) and 5 and 7 January 1939 (in the OI Museum Archives: Megiddo Expedition Box 007, Folder 005).
47 Field diary entry by Loud for 19 January 1939 (in the OI Museum Archives: Megiddo Expedition Box 007, Folder 005).
48 Letter from Loud to Wilson dated 12 March 1939 (in the OI Museum Archives: Directors Correspondence Box 181, Folder 001).
49 Field diary entries by Loud for 4 and 29 April 1939 (in the OI Museum Archives: Megiddo Expedition Box 007, Folder 005).
50 A detailed investigation of the local labourers must be left to a separate treatment, if it is even possible, for there is only a single relevant document that I have been able to locate so far in the OI archives—a list of the local villagers, and the villages from whence they came, who were employed at the site by Loud in 1938–1939. (But cf. also Mickel Citation2019 and Mickel Citation2021 for recent discussions of local labourers at other sites in more recent decades).
51 I am indebted to Julian Hirsch for drawing this fact to my attention and for alerting me to the existence of several relevant letters and documents currently within the May material in the Oberlin archives. Those state that May not only knew Arabic but also taught it at Oberlin (see, e.g., May’s 1942–1943 Annual Report to the President of Oberlin, currently in the May Series V Box 1 within the Oberlin archives).
52 Information from Jeff Zorn (pers. comms. April and May 2021).
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Eric H. Cline
Eric H. Cline is Professor of Classics, History, and Anthropology, the former Chair of the Department of Classical and Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations, and the current Director of the Capitol Archaeological Institute at George Washington University, in Washington DC. He is an active field archaeologist with more than 30 seasons of excavation and survey experience in Israel, Egypt, Jordan, Cyprus, Greece, and the United States, including ten seasons at Megiddo (1994–2014), where he served as co-director before retiring from the project in 2014, and another ten seasons at Tel Kabri, where he currently serves as Co-Director. Email: [email protected]