Center and Periphery in the Cold War: Soviet Economic Aid to Vietnam, 1954–1975

Abstract

The Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) had no common border, no colonial ties, and no traditional direct trade. However, since the First Indochina war, the close Soviet-Vietnam relationship roots in the communist bloc led to the economic contacts between Hanoi and Moscow. This relationship bloomed during 1965–1973 when the US forces were directly involved in South Vietnam. By tapping the declassified materials from Vietnamese archives, this paper sheds light on the notion of center and periphery in the Cold War. It seems that the superpowers were able to play a dominant global role not only through the deployment of powerful weapons but also through the use of financial resources. However, the DRV was not controlled by their allies, and completely be proactive with their decisions during their struggle for national reunification.

Keywords:

• The Soviet Union
• Vietnam War
• the United States
• Cold War
• economic aid

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Notes

1 William J. Duiker, China and Vietnam: The Roots of Conflict (Berkeley: Institute of East Asian Studies of the University of California, 1986); Ilya Gaiduk, The Soviet Union and the Vietnam War (Chicago: Ivan R.Dee, 1996); Ilya Gaiduk, Confronting Vietnam: Soviet policy toward the Indochina conflict, 1954–1963 (California: Stanford University Press, 2003); Ang Cheng Guan, Vietnamese Communists’ Relations with China and the Second Indochina Conflict 1956–1962 (Jefferson, North Carolina, and London: McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers, 1997); Ang Cheng Guan, The Vietnam War from the Other Side: The Vietnamese Communists’ Perspective (New York: Routledge Curzon, 2002); Pierre Asselin, Bitter Peace: Washington, Hanoi, and the Making of the Paris Agreement (University of North Carolina Press, 2002); Pierre Asselin, Hanoi’s Road to the Vietnam War, 1954–1965. (University of California Press, 2013); Pierre Asselin, Vietnam’s American War: A History (Cambridge University Press, 2018); Qiang Zhai, China and the Vietnam wars, 1950–1975 (Chapel Hill, NC and London: The University of North Carolina Press, 2000); Mari Olsen, Soviet-Vietnam relations and the role of China, 1949-64: Changing alliances (London and New York: Routledge, 2006); Nguyễn Thị Mai Hoa, Các nước xã hội chủ nghĩa ủng hộ Việt Nam kháng chiến chống Mỹ, cứu nước [Socialist countries’ support to Vietnam in anti-American war of resistance for national salvation (1954–1975)] (Hanoi: National Political Publishing House, 2013); Phạm Quang Minh, Quan hệ tam giác Việt Nam-Liên Xô-Trung Quốc trong cuộc kháng chiến chống Mỹ (1954–1975) [The Triangular Relations between Vietnam, the Soviet Union, and China in the anti-American Resistance Period, 1954–1975] (Hanoi: National Universtiy Publishing House, 2015).

2 The period from 1954-1975 in Vietnamese history has been described in various terms by scholars. In Vietnam, the war has been called as the ‘Anti-American Resistance for National Salvation’, the ‘Second Indochina War’, the ‘Vietnamese Civil War’, the ‘American War’, and ‘the Vietnam War’. For this paper, I will simply use the term ‘the Vietnam War’.

3 Jan S. Prybyla, ‘Soviet and Chinese Economic aid to North Vietnam’, The China Quarterly, No. 27 (Jul. - Sep., 1966), 84–100.

4 Ilya Gaiduk, The Soviet Union and the Vietnam War (Chicago: Ivan R.Dee, 1996); Ilya Gaiduk, Confronting Vietnam: Soviet Policy Toward the Indochina Conflict, 1954–1963 (California: Stanford University Press, 2003).

5 Mari Olsen, Soviet-Vietnam relations and the role of China, 1949–64: Changing alliances (London and New York: Routledge, 2006).

6 Harish Mehta, ‘Soviet Biscuit Factories and Chinese Financial Grants: North Vietnam's Economic Diplomacy in 1967 and 1968', Diplomatic History, Vol. xxxvi (April 2012).

7 Vietnamese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Việt Nam – Liên Xô: 30 năm quan hệ (1950–1980): Văn kiện và tài liệu [Documents on Vietnam - Soviet Union: 30 Years of Relationship (1950–1980)] (Hanoi: Ministry of Foreign Affairs Publishing House, 1983), 9.

8 Vietnamese Communist Party, Văn kiện Đảng toàn tập [Party Documents Complete Series], Vol. xi (1950) (Hanoi: National Political Publishing House, 2001), 11.

9 Nguyễn Thị Mai Hoa, Các nước xã hội chủ nghĩa ủng hộ Việt Nam kháng chiến chống Mỹ, cứu nước [Socialist Countries’ Support to Vietnam in Anti-American War of Resistance for National Salvation (1954–1975)] (Hanoi: National Political Publishing House, 2013), 72.

10 Hồ Chí Minh, Báo cáo tại Hội nghị chính trị đặc biệt, ngày 27/3/1964 [Political Report, speech at the special Party Congress dated 27 Mar. 1964]. Hồ Chí Minh toàn tập. [Complete works by Ho Chi Minh], Vol. xiv (1963–1965), 3rd ed. (Hanoi: National Political Publishing House, 2011), 273.

11 Balazs Szalontai, ‘Political and Economic Crisis in North Vietnam, 1955–56', Cold War History, v, November 2005.

12 Collection of the Prime Minister’s Office. File 3759. Quan hệ kinh tế và thương mại giữa Việt nam và Liên Xô từ năm 1955 đến nay (chủ yếu là thời gian 1961–1965). [Economic and commercial relations between Vietnam and the Soviet Union from 1955 to present (mainly 1961–1965)], preserved at the National Archive No. 3, Hanoi, Vietnam.

13 Đặng Phong, Lịch sử kinh tế Việt Nam 1945–2000 [Economic History of Vietnam], Vol. ii (1955–1975) (Hanoi: Social Sciences Publishing House, 2005), 535.

14 Collection of the Prime Minister’s Office. File 3759. Quan hệ kinh tế và thương mại giữa Việt nam và Liên Xô từ năm 1955 đến nay (chủ yếu là thời gian 1961–1965). [Economic and commercial relations between Vietnam and the Soviet Union from 1955 to present (mainly 1961–1965)], preserved at the National Archive No. 3, Hanoi, Vietnam.

15 Ibid.

16 Vietnamese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Department of the Soviet Union (1985). Về quan hệ Việt - Xô trong giai đoạn chống Mỹ cứu nước từ tháng 7/1954 đến tháng 4/1975 [On Vietnam-Soviet Union Relations during the period of Anti-American Resistance for country salvation from July 1954 to April 1975] (Hanoi: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1985).

17 Collection of State Planning Committee. File 17600. Báo cáo về quan hệ giữa Việt Nam với các nước XHCN năm 1955-1965 của Ủy ban Kế hoạch Nhà nước [The economic relations between Vietnam and other socialist countries], preserved at the National Archive No. 3, Hanoi, Vietnam.

18 Collection of the Prime Minister’s Office. File 8736. Báo cáo của Phó Thủ tướng về tình hình Liên Xô viện trợ kinh tế và kỹ thuật cho Việt Nam từ 1955–1971 [Report of the Deputy Prime Minister on the Soviet Union's economic and technical aid to Vietnam from 1955 to 1971], preserved at the National Archive No. 3, Hanoi, Vietnam.

19 Ilya Gaiduk, The Soviet Union and the Vietnam War (Chicago: Ivan R.Dee, 1996), 5.

20 Collection of the Prime Minister’s Office. File 8964. Về việc Việt Nam nhận viện trợ kinh tế của Trung Quốc năm 1972 [Report on Chinese economic assistance to Vietnam in 1972], preserved at the National Archive No. 3, Hanoi, Vietnam.

21 Ilya Gaiduk, The Soviet Union and the Vietnam War (Chicago: Ivan R.Dee, 1996), 5.

22 Ang Cheng Guan, The Vietnam War from the Other Side: The Vietnamese Communists’ Perspective (New York: Routledge Curzon, 2002), 15.

23 Ilya Gaiduk, The Soviet Union and the Vietnam War (Chicago: Ivan R.Dee, 1996), 5.

24 The Archive of Vietnamese Central Office of the Party, Báo cáo tình hình phong trào cách mạng thế giới [Report on the situation of the international communist movement], Folder 82, Unit 129.

25 Ibid.

26 Vietnamese Communist Party, Văn kiện Đảng toàn tập [Party Documents Complete Series], Vol.xviii (1957) (Hanoi: National Political Publishing House, 2002), 794.

27 Collection of the Prime Minister’s Office. File 8058. Báo cáo của Phó Thủ tướng Lê Thanh Nghị về việc gặp các đồng chí lãnh đạo Đảng và Nhà nước 8 nước XHCN năm 1965 [Report of Deputy Prime Minister Le Thanh Nghi on meetings with Party and State leaders of eight socialist countries in 1965], preserved at the National Archive No. 3, Hanoi, Vietnam.

28 Vietnamese Communist Party, Văn kiện Đảng toàn tập [Party Documents Complete Series], Vol.xviii (1957) (Hanoi: National Political Publishing House, 2002), 786.

29 Vietnamese Communist Party, Văn kiện Đảng toàn tập [Party Documents Complete Series], Vol.xxii (1961) (Hanoi: National Political Publishing House, 2002), 103.

30 Phạm Quang Minh, ‘In the crossfire: Vietnam's relations with China and Soviet Union during the Vietnam War (1965–1972)', VNU Journal of Science, Social and Humanities, xxv, (2009), 24–36.

31 Vietnamese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Department of the Soviet Union (1985). Về quan hệ Việt - Xô trong giai đoạn chống Mỹ cứu nước từ tháng 7/1954 đến tháng 4/1975 [On Vietnam-Soviet Union Relations during the period of Anti-American Resistance for country salvation from July 1954 to April 1975], (Hanoi: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1985)

32 The Archive of Vietnamese Central Office of the Party, Đề cương báo cáo về tình hình hoạt động của các Đảng phe xã hội chủ nghĩa trong cuộc đấu tranh giữa hai đường lối trong năm 1964 [Proposal of report on activities of the parties in the socialist camp during the struggle between two ways in 1964], Folder 82, Unit 129.

33 Collection of the Prime Minister’s Office, File 2139, Công văn, báo cáo về chương trình hợp tác kinh tế, khoa học kĩ thuật với Liên Xô trong giai đoạn 1961–1965 [Dispatch and report on economic, scientific and technical cooperation programme with the Soviet Union in the period 1961–1965], preserved at the National Archive No. 3, Hanoi, Vietnam.

34 Phạm Quang Minh, ‘In the crossfire: Vietnam's relations with China and Soviet Union during the Vietnam War (1965–1972)', VNU Journal of Science, Social and Humanities, xxv, (2009), 24–36.

35 Vietnamese Communist Party, Văn kiện Đảng toàn tập [Party Documents Complete Series], Vol. xx (1959) (Hanoi: National Political Publishing House, 2002), 82.

36 Mari Olsen, Soviet-Vietnam relations and the role of China, 1949–64: Changing alliances (London and New York: Routledge, 2006), 69

37 Ilya Gaiduk, Confronting Vietnam: Soviet Policy toward the Indochina Conflict, 1954–1963 (California: Stanford University Press, 2003), 84.

38 Mari Olsen, Soviet-Vietnam Relations and the Role of China, 1949–64: Changing Alliances (London and New York: Routledge, 2006), 73.

39 Ibid.

40 Qiang Zhai, China and the Vietnam wars, 1950–1975 (Chapel Hill, NC and London: The University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 79.

41 Vietnamese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Department of the Soviet Union (1985). Về quan hệ Việt - Xô trong giai đoạn chống Mỹ cứu nước từ tháng 7/1954 đến tháng 4/1975 [On Vietnam-Soviet Union Relations during the period of Anti-American Resistance for country salvation from July 1954 to April 1975], (Hanoi: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1985).

42 Collection of the Prime Minister’s Office, File 1622, Bản tuyên bố chung Việt Nam- Liên Xô ngày 17-4-1965 [The joint declaration between Vietnam and the Soviet Union on April 17, 1965], preserved at the National Archive No. 3, Hanoi, Vietnam.

43 Vietnamese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Việt Nam - Liên Xô: 30 năm quan hệ (1950–1980): Văn kiện và tài liệu [Documents on Vietnam – Soviet Union: 30 years of relationship (1950–1980)], (Hanoi: Ministry of Foreign Affairs Publishing House, 1983).

44 Collection of the Prime Minister’s Office, File 8736, Báo cáo của Phó Thủ tướng về tình hình Liên Xô viện trợ kinh tế và kỹ thuật cho Việt Nam từ 1955–1971 [Report of the Deputy Prime Minister on the Soviet Union's economic and technical aid to Vietnam from 1955 to 1971], preserved at the National Archive No. 3, Hanoi, Vietnam.

45 National Assembly of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, Văn kiện quốc hội toàn tập [Full Collection of Parliamentary Documents], Vol. iii, (Hanoi: National Political Publishing House, 2006), 463.

46 Collection of the Prime Minister’s Office, File 14731, Báo cáo tổng kết công tác phòng không nhân dân trong 3 năm 1965-1967 của các cơ quan Trung ương [Report of Central government agencies on the air defence in three years (1965–1967)], preserved at the National Archive No. 3, Hanoi, Vietnam.

47 Vietnam General Statistics Office, Số liệu thống kê Việt Nam thế ká»· XX [Vietnam statistical data in the 20th century], Vol.i (Hanoi: Statistical Publishing House, 2004), 243.

48 Ibid., 2871.

49 Collection of the Prime Minister’s Office, File 8964, Về việc Việt Nam nhận viện trợ kinh tế của Trung Quốc năm 1972 [Report on Chinese economic assistance to Vietnam in 1972], preserved at the National Archive No. 3, Hanoi, Vietnam.

50 Collection of the Prime Minister’s Office. File 8964. Về việc Việt Nam nhận viện trợ kinh tế của Trung Quốc năm 1972 [Report on Chinese economic assistance to Vietnam in 1972], preserved at the National Archive No. 3, Hanoi, Vietnam

51 The US. Dept of Defense Manpower Data Center, https://www.americanwarlibrary.com/vietnam/vwatl.htm, accessed 20 July 2023.

52 Vietnamese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Department of the Soviet Union (1985). Về quan hệ Việt - Xô trong giai đoạn chống Mỹ cứu nước từ tháng 7/1954 đến tháng 4/1975 [On Vietnam-Soviet Union Relations during the period of Anti-American Resistance for country salvation from July 1954 to April 1975], (Hanoi: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1985).

53 Collection of the Prime Minister’s Office. File 8058. Báo cáo của Phó Thủ tướng Lê Thanh Nghị về việc gặp các đồng chí lãnh đạo Đảng và Nhà nước 8 nước XHCN năm 1965 [Report of Deputy Prime Minister Le Thanh Nghi on meetings with Party and State leaders of eight socialist countries in 1965], preserved at the National Archive No. 3, Hanoi, Vietnam.

54 Pierre Asselin, Vietnam's American War: A History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 167.

55 Vietnam General Statistics Office, Số liệu thống kê Việt Nam thế ká»· XX [Vietnam statistical data in the 20th century], Vol. i (Hanoi: Statistical Publishing House, 2004), 243.

56 Vietnamese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Department of the Soviet Union (1985). Về quan hệ Việt - Xô trong giai đoạn chống Mỹ cứu nước từ tháng 7/1954 đến tháng 4/1975 [On Vietnam-Soviet Union Relations during the period of Anti-American Resistance for country salvation from July 1954 to April 1975], (Hanoi: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1985).

57 Ibid.

58 Nguyen Duy Trinh, Mặt trận ngoại giao thời kỳ chống Mỹ, cứu nước 1965–1975 [The Diplomatic Front during the period of Anti-American Resistance for country salvation] (Hanoi: The Truth Publising House, 1979).

59 Vietnamese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Department of the Soviet Union (1985). Về quan hệ Việt - Xô trong giai đoạn chống Mỹ cứu nước từ tháng 7/1954 đến tháng 4/1975 [On Vietnam-Soviet Union Relations during the period of Anti-American Resistance for country salvation from July 1954 to April 1975], (Hanoi: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1985).

60 Ibid.

61 Collection of the Prime Minister’s Office. File 8736. Báo cáo của Phó Thủ tướng về tình hình Liên Xô viện trợ kinh tế và kỹ thuật cho Việt Nam từ 1955 - 1971 [Report of the Deputy Prime Minister on the Soviet Union's economic and technical aid to Vietnam from 1955 to 1971], preserved at the National Archive No. 3, Hanoi, Vietnam.

62 Collection of the Prime Minister’s Office. File 8853: Báo cáo, thông báo của Phó Thủ tướng và Bộ Ngoại thương về kết quả đàm phán kinh tế năm 1972 với các nước xã hội chủ nghĩa [Report, Announcements of the Deputy Prime Minister and Ministry of Foreign Trade on the results of economic negotiations in 1972 with other socialist countries], preserved at the National Archive No. 3, Hanoi, Vietnam.

63 Vietnamese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Department of the Soviet Union (1985). Về quan hệ Việt - Xô trong giai đoạn chống Mỹ cứu nước từ tháng 7/1954 đến tháng 4/1975 [On Vietnam-Soviet Union Relations during the period of Anti-American Resistance for country salvation from July 1954 to April 1975], (Hanoi: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1985).

64 Pierre Asselin, Vietnam's American War: A History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 219.

65 Vietnamese Communist Party, Văn kiện Đảng toàn tập [Party Documents Complete Series], Vol. xxxv (1974) (Hanoi: National Political Publishing House, 2004), 174.

66 Pierre Asselin, Vietnam's American War: A History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 133.

67 Vietnamese Communist Party, Văn kiện Đảng toàn tập [Party Documents Complete Series], Vol. xxxv (1974) (Hanoi: National Political Publishing House, 2004), 185.

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Luong Thi Hong

Luong Thi Hong (family name Luong) works as a research fellow at the Institute of History, Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences. Her specialized subject is the Contemporary History of Vietnam (after 1945) and specific issues of the Vietnam War as well as the connection between Vietnam and other socialist countries during the Cold War.