Faynan, Nomads and the Western Negev in the Early Iron Age: A Critical Reappraisal

Figures & data

Figure 1. Location of Iron Age sites in southern Jordan and the Negev.

Table 1. History of occupation at Khirbat an-Nahas and Khirbat al-Jariya (adapted from Levy et al. 2014, table 2.1 and Liss et al. 2020, table 2).

Absolute date bce	KEN Area A gatehouse	KEN Area M slag mound	KEN Area R monumental building	KEN Area S copper production area	KEN Area T monumental building	KEN Area W residential/storage	Khirbat al- Jariya
	Post-abandonment	Post- abandonment	Post- abandonment	Post- abandonment	Abandoned (unoccupied)	Collapse	Post- abandonment
9^th C.	Ephemeral metal production outside gate	Smelting	Copper production in extramural courtyard; rest abandoned	Abandoned		Post-abandonment (unoccupied)	Post-abandonment–small-scale copper production
9^th C.	Intensive metal production	Intensive smelting		Minor extension of building		Domestic complex; storage areas; cultic?
Late 10^th-early 9^th C.	Decommissioning. Residential?	Building; intensive smelting		Building: casting/slag processing	2^nd occupation phase floor
10^th C.	Building of gatehouse	M3: Industrial copper production	Some additions to structure	Crushed slag below later building	Main building phase, residential		Building and copper production
			Main building phase, residential
Early 10^th C.	Crushed slag below gate		Crushed slag below building		Crushed slag below building	W3: Sediment with crushed slag	Copper production and occupation
Late 12^th-11^th C.	Unoccupied	M4: L667 Ashy silt L670 Sediment with furnace fragments, crushed slag L671 Sediment with crushed slag	Unexcavated	S4: Domestic/cooking activities: mixed EB/IA sherds, bones, some copper	Unexcavated		Accumulation of domestic and copper debris (A5), occupation with domestic refuse (C2c) Occupation: crushed slag, some copper ore fragments, ash, pits in bedrock (A6), crushed slag (C2d)
13^th-12^th C		M5a: L673 Limestone hearth/oven, bone and ash M5b: L676 Altar-shaped limestone installation, crushed slag fragments		Unoccupied		Unexcavated	Unoccupied

Figure 2. Bing Map satellite view of Khirbat an-Nahas, with excavation areas. © 2023 Microsoft.

Figure 3. View of the fortress at Khirbat an-Nahas, from the south-east, in 2019 (photo by J.M. Tebes).

Figure 4. View of the Wadi Fidan 40 cemetery, in 2019 (photo by J.M. Tebes).

Table 2. Summary of the nature of the evidence from Iron Age Faynan.

13^th-12^th centuries bce: very small-scale	Late 12^th-11^th centuries bce: limited	10^th-9^th centuries bce: industrial scale
‘Altar’ installation and	Some domestic/cooking	Monumental elite buildings
hearth/oven	activities	Expansion of use of sites
No structures	No structures	Industrial-scale copper
Crushed slag = small-scale and	Limited and technologically	production
technologically simple copper	simple copper production	Sophisticated technology and
production	No production installations	organisation of production
No production installations	(but some evidence for	Large amount of pottery
Single sherd of pottery	furnaces)	Imports from western Negev,
No imports	Very little pottery	Cyprus and Arabia
	No imports

Table 3. Caprovine and cattle exploitation at Iron I-IIA sites of the Negev and southern Jordan. Percentages deduced from the number of specimens.

Site	Caprovines	Relation Sheep/Goat	Cattle	Bibliography
Khirbat an-Nahas	81.6%	22/78	3.9%	Muniz and Levy 2014
Timna smelting camps	87.44%	25/75	0.61%	Sapir-Hen and Ben-Yosef 2022
Tel Masos III-II	76.16%	65/35	23.66%	Tchernov and Drori 1983
Tel Beersheba IX-VI	74.46%	72/28	11.70%	Hellwing 1984; Sade 2016
Tel ‘Arad XII-VI	91.25%	75/25	8.57%	Sade 1988

Table 4. Chronological sequence and interrelation of contemporary events in early Iron Age Faynan and the Negev.

Period	Absolute date bce	Faynan	Tel Masos	Negev Highlands	Other
Iron I	12^th/11^th C.	Limited, opportunistic and technologically simple copper production, no structures, little pottery	Masos Str. III: fortress and structures, sophisticated bronze-working	First settlements in Negev Highlands (11^th C.)	Temporary interruption of Cypriot copper supply Faynan copper exported to Mediterranean
Early Iron IIA	10^th C.	Industrial boom, sophisticated copper technology, monumental elite buildings	Masos Str. II: large-scale settlement, sophisticated bronze-working	Extensive settlement in Negev Highlands
		Wadi Fidan 40 nomadic population unconnected to copper production
	Late 10^th C.	Copper production sites at Khirbat al- Jariya and Khirbat al-Guwayba abandoned			Sheshonq I campaign (c. 925 bce?) Revival of Cypriot copper trade
Late Iron IIA	Early 9^th C.	All monumental buildings go out of use
	Late 9^th C.	End of copper production	End of Masos Str. II/I	Decline of settlement at Negev Highlands sites

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