Consumerist views of higher education and links to student wellbeing and achievement: an analysis based on the concept of autonomy as depicted in self-determination theory

Figures & data

Table 1. Self-determination theory and motivation

Self-determination theory
	Quality of motivation		Example
Increasing self-determination ↑	Autonomous motivation	Intrinsic motivation – interest, challenge and wonder drive behaviour	‘I am fascinated by this topic and can’t wait to learn more’	Intrinsic motivation
		Integrated motivation – the match between the individual’s values and the goal of the behaviour drives continued participation.	‘I admire this tutor’s published work so although I’m not finding the initial concepts easy, I’m going to trust that perseverance will eventually give me the buzz of mastering the material.’	Extrinsic motivation
		Identified motivation – at times when the interest is not there, the behaviour and what it represents is so valued by the individual that they continue to perform it.	‘This is known to be the hardest course in my area of interest and I’ve always wanted to be amongst those that have it on their cv, so I’ll maintain the effort.
	Controlled motivation	Introjected motivation – internal rewards and punishments drive behaviour (e.g. I’ll do this so I won’t feel guilty)	‘I know I should be capable of passing this subject so I’ll be mad with myself and embarrassed if I fail’.
		External motivation – external rewards and punishments drive behaviour	‘This is a compulsory course and I’ll be thrown off the programme if I don’t pass’
	Amotivation	Amotivation – person lacks drive, sees no link between behaviour and outcomes	‘I don’t know where to start or what to do on this course. I’ve spent ages already and got nowhere’.

Table 2. Environments that diminish or promote autonomy [based loosely on Kusurkar, Croiset, and Ten Cate (2011), Ten Cate, Kusurkar, and Williams (2011)]

Autonomy Diminishing Learning Environments	Autonomy Supportive Learning Environments
Students are present because they feel it is necessary for attaining an external goal	Students are present of their own volition and because of inherent interest in the programme
Power features inappropriately in relationships (whether this be that the institution, or the student consumer, is always right)	Respectful relationships
Feelings do not feature – following a carefully designed curriculum is key	Feelings acknowledged and responded to by e.g. building on topics that spark interest and which are enjoyed, ‘normalising’ feelings of challenge and discouragement.
No choice	Choice allowed
Activities required but no rationale given Reward systems instead of a rationale	Rationale provided for activities
Pressure to be right e.g. ethos or system where grades are of paramount importance	Occasional misunderstandings and errors expected as part of learning experiences.
Highly directive and discouraging of alternative approaches.	Encourage risk taking and experimentation with ways of studying and learning
Tutor led content, ‘closed’ questions and activities. Little development of content or teaching approaches over time.	Students can take some initiative and influence the programme. Active participation in learning encouraged
Highly specified work programme with specified readings, tight timetable, monitoring of attendance and use of virtual learning environment, frequent deadlines	Students trusted to take responsibility for their own learning. Structure through choice of readings, clear deadline.
Lack of challenge in material or material over-challenging	Optimum challenge
Feedback judgemental only (grades) or negative	Feedback informative and constructive
Either very tightly structured or completely unstructured	Provide ‘structured freedom’- guidance without strait-jacketing.

Table 3. Changes in higher education in England relevant to increasing marketisation of the sector

1992	Further and Higher Education Act	Former polytechnics became universities
1997	Dearing Report	Government and universities should ‘encourage the student to see him/herself as an investor in receipt of a service and to seek, as an investor, value for money and a good return from the investment’ (Dearing 1997, 22.19)
1998	Teaching and Higher Education Act	Tuition fees £1,100 p.a.
2003	White paper The future of Higher Education	Proposed National Student Survey (NSS) (implemented 2005) Variable fees of up to £3000
2004	Higher Education Act	Introduced variable fees (up to £3000) in English universities (implemented from 2006)
2009	2009: White Paper ‘Higher Ambitions: The Future of Universities in a Knowledge Economy’	Proposed closer links between universities and employers’ knowledge of the skills required for the economy more information for students. ‘The burden of financing higher education will need to be more equitably shared between employers, the taxpayers, and individuals’ (BIS, 2009:22).
2010	The Browne Review Securing a Sustainable Future for Higher Education	Proposed reducing the public funding for university teaching and replacing it with increased tuition fees. removing the ‘cap’ on the number of full-time students at institutions Universities to publish Key Information Sets (KIS) (implemented 2012)
2010	Student protests	Demonstrations in London by students from all over England. Students occupy Conservative party headquarters.
2011	White paper Higher Education: Students at the Heart of the System	Tuition fees at up to £9,500 p.a. Increasing competition between institutions Improving student experience
2015	Consumer Rights Act	Students included under the Consumer Rights Act (CRA)
2015	Green Paper ‘Higher education: teaching excellence, social mobility and student choice’	Proposed Teaching Excellence Framework (TEF) linked to fees New providers of higher education
2016	Teaching Excellence Framework (TEF) introduced	Ratings published to inform student choice

Table 4. Framing policy to influence students’ autonomy

Framing that diminishes autonomy	Issue	Framing that enhances autonomy
Borrowing to pay for a commodity (degree). Acquisitive. The investment should more than pay for itself in future earnings.	Fees loans	Fees as a necessary way of making a high-quality learning and personal development experience accessible to all with a strong interest in learning. Inquisitive. Opening up opportunities.
Choose the degree that leads to the best paid job on graduation.	Employability	Choose the degree that you find most interesting. Any degree should develop your critical thinking skills and offer a host of opportunities that you can enjoy now as well as creating future possibilities.
Value defined in terms of contact hours and future earnings.	Value for Money	Quality of taught experience more important than quantity. Is the teaching intellectually stimulating and does it prepare students to engage in fruitful independent study? Is it a transformative experience?
Students can vote with their feet, choosing universities that offer the types of courses, forms of delivery and outcomes they want. ‘[S]he who pays the piper, calls the tune’.	Competition between Universities/Student Choice	Explore options thoroughly and find the best fit with academic interests, entry qualifications (competence) and fellow students with shared interests (relatedness).
Going to university is essential to avoid being at a huge disadvantage in the jobs market.	Widening Participation (Social Justice)	Universities are open to all and are a positive option for those excited by learning and keen to challenge themselves intellectually. It will not necessarily be the best option for all school leavers. Some will take other routes and there is always the possibility of doing a degree programme later.

Table 5. Influencing autonomy at the institutional level

Framing that diminishes autonomy	Issue	Framing that enhances autonomy
Videos and other media conveying university as a fun, exciting experience – almost a constant party or adventure holiday – with minimal reference to study. Material incentives to join certain programmes.	Advertising	Appealing to curiosity and emphasising challenge, inspiration, personal growth and community contribution.
NSS results matter as comparative ratings affect recruitment so students will be constantly asked for feedback and programmes required to produce action plans to address them. ‘You said … we did … approach from business.	Seeking Student Views	Student voice is important, so too are other voices including those of tutors and managers. Respectful discussion involves all parties being able to contribute and to provide rationales in support of their views. No one party has automatic right on its side.
Entry is possible with significantly lower qualifications than used to be the case and Student Services can provide support.	Entry Qualifications	Entry qualifications properly reflect the levels of competence that allow students to participate and benefit fully from the programme.
Learning is broken into small, continuously assessed ‘chunks’. Learning Outcomes are very clearly specified. Follow the rules and success is assured.	Programme Design	Structure is provided but the learning journey is individual and students need to engage, make choices, embrace challenge and cope with some uncertainty along the way in order to develop the confidence and critical thinking capacity to tackle novel intellectual tasks.
Students are required to attend and, if they fail to do so, have themselves to blame if they do not do well (plus the implication that those who do attend, ‘deserve’ good grades).	Attendance Monitoring	Attendance is expected as the lectures are integral to the programme. Attendance records are kept as part of professional record keeping and because they have to be supplied as part of some students’ visa arrangements but this is an administrative function only.

Table 6. Influencing autonomy at the programme and tutor level

Framing that diminishes autonomy	Issue	Framing that enhances autonomy
Students should be able to rely on tutors to provide the information most useful for the assignments in as efficient a way as possible.	Role of tutors/lecturers	Tutors should stimulate students’ thinking and provide signposts that help students grapple with issues within the discipline. At times tutors can cover learning objectives using various topics, consulting students about which topics are of greatest interest.
It is important to fully grasp concepts immediately and to get things right in interaction with lecturers.	Ethos	Asking for clarification is preferable to being embarrassed to exhibit lack of understanding. If challenge is optimal, it is to be expected that learning is not immediate, and concepts require consolidation.
There is a single way to approach assignments – the tutor should very explicitly describe what is required and students achieve success by following the given rules.	Assignment support (essay disciplines)	Successful assignments will often be very different from one another. Students need to be helped to understand the assessment criteria but then to plan an individual response to the assignment, drawing on their own extended reading. Some choice of assignments is offered.
The grade is crucial and students should work out their running average after each assignment and see a tutor immediately if the average drops below their target.	Feedback	Feedback is to support learning, to help students identify what they have done well and where, and how, they might improve. Tutors can clarify and expand on feedback, focusing on students’ learning more than their grade.

Kusurkar, R. A., G. Croiset, and T. J. Ten Cate. 2011. “Twelve Tips to Stimulate Intrinsic Motivation in Students through Autonomy-supportive Classroom Teaching Derived from Self-determination Theory.” Medical Teacher 33 (12): 978–982. doi:https://doi.org/10.3109/0142159X.2011.599896.

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Ten Cate, T. J., R. A. Kusurkar, and G. C. Williams. 2011. “How Self-determination Theory Can Assist Our Understanding of the Teaching and Learning Processes in Medical Education. AMEE Guide No. 59.” Medical Teacher 33 (12): 961–973. doi:https://doi.org/10.3109/0142159X.2011.595435.

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Dearing, R. 1997. Higher Education in the learning society. Report of the National Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education. London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office.

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