Figures & data
Figure 1 Alignment of human, rat and mouse NPS precursor proteins. NPS sequences are shaded, the putative processing site (KR) is underlined and the broken line indicates the presumed signal peptide.
Figure 2 Coronal section of the rat brainstem showing in situ hybridization for tyrosine hydroxylase (TH, brown) and NPS precursor (white grains) in the LC area. Antisense riboprobes for TH were labeled with digoxigenin while probes for NPS precursor were labeled using 35S-UTP. Hybridizations were carried out as described (Xu et al. Citation2004). TH signals were captured under brightfield illumination and a separate darkfield image was taken from the same section to capture the NPS precursor hybridization signals. Both images were combined using Photoshop and adjusted for brightness and contrast. In this section medial areas are on the left and lateral areas on the right side. Experimental conditions are described in detail in Xu et al. (Citation2004, Citation2007). Scale bar: 200 μm. (See colour online)
Figure 3 Exploratory activity in habituated male C57Bl/6 mice injected into a lateral cerebral ventricle with vehicle (PBS) or increasing doses of NPS during the first 60 min post injection. (A) Exploratory activity is defined as the total number of infrared beam breaks produced by the animals while moving horizontally or vertically (rearing). NPS dose-dependently increased this parameter. (B) NPS significantly stimulated rearing activity. (C) Inactivity is defined as an absence of beam breaks for a minimum duration of 2 s. NPS reduced periods of inactivity in a dose-dependent manner. Data are shown as means ± SEM from 9–10 animals per group. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001 by ANOVA with Bonferroni post hoc test compared to vehicle-injected animals. Results were obtained by analysis of raw data from locomotion experiments described in Xu et al. (Citation2004) where detailed descriptions of methodology and experimental conditions can be found.
Table I. Comparison of various endogenous and exogenous ligands/drugs and their pharmacological effects on anxiety-related behaviors, sleep and food intake.