Figures & data
Figure 1 Example of a chronic mild stress paradigm. Reprinted from (Grippo et al. Citation2006a); used with permission.
Figure 2 Mean ( + SEM) levels of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) (Panels A and C) and interleukin-1beta (IL-1β (Panels B and D) in blood plasma (Panels A and B) and central nervous system (Panels C and D) in CMS and control groups following 4 weeks of CMS. Concentrations of both cytokines were increased in the plasma and specific central nervous system structures (*P < 0.05 vs. respective control value; #P < 0.1 vs. respective control value). Adapted from (Grippo et al. Citation2005a); used with permission.
Figure 3 Current-response functions illustrating the number of behavioral responses per minute at each level of standardized current (Panel A), and corresponding effective current 50 (ECu50) values showing the standardized current intensity that supports 50% of the maximum response rate (Panel B), in rats with CHF before and 24 h following etanercept (TNF-α antagonist) or vehicle treatment. CHF rats treated with vehicle displayed a parallel rightward shift in the current-response function and a corresponding increase in ECu50 value; CHF rats treated with etanercept displayed values similar to this group's respective baseline values and those of the control group (*P < 0.05 vs. Baseline Vehicle; #P < 0.05 vs. CHF + Etanercept). Modified from (Grippo et al. Citation2003b); used with permission.
Figure 4 Mean ( + SEM) absolute resting heart rate (HR; bpm: beats per minute; Panel A) and change in HR from baseline (Panel B) following selective and combined autonomic blockade (propranolol: β-adrenergic receptor antagonist; methylatropine: antagonist) cholinergic receptor in CMS and control groups. The CMS group displayed a greater bradycardia in response to propranolol administration, compared with the control group (*P < 0.05 vs. respective control value). Reprinted from (Grippo et al. Citation2002); used with permission.
Figure 5 Mean ( + SEM) time to the onset of PVC, bigeminy, salvos, VT, and VF following intravenous aconitine (a pro-arrhythmic agent) administration in control and CMS rats. CMS reduced the onset time to PVC, salvo and VT (*P < 0.05 vs. respective control value) following 4 weeks of CMS. Modified from (Grippo et al. Citation2004); used with permission.
Figure 6 Mean ( + SEM) absolute heart rate (HR; bpm: beats per minute) responses to β-adrenergic receptor blockade with propranolol (2 mg/kg, iv) and change in HR from baseline values, after 4 weeks of CMS, in CMS and control (CON) groups treated with either daily fluoxetine (FL; 10 mg/kg, sc; a 5-HT reuptake inhibitor or vehicle (V). Fluoxetine partially prevented the exaggerated reduction in HR following propranolol administration in the CMS group (horizontal lines denote paired t-tests; *P < 0.05 for the indicated comparisons). Reprinted from (Grippo et al. Citation2006a); used with permission.
