The pursuit of happiness within Islam: a systematic review of two decades of research on religiosity and happiness in Islamic groups

Figures & data

Figure 1. PRISMA flow chart of the systematic literature review studies.

Table 1. Shows a summary of the research conducted only with Muslim populations.

Studies with Muslim sample only
Author/year	Country/Participants	Measures	Finding/conclusion
Abdel-Khalek (2006a)	Kuwait, 2210 (1056 male and 1154 female)	1.Four rating scales assess happiness, physical health mental health, and religiosity	Correlation between self-ratings of happiness, physical health, mental health, and religiosity. Males had higher mean score on happiness and mental health. Females had higher religiosity mean score.
Abdel-Khalek (2007)	Kuwait, 6339 (3181 male and 3158 female)	Four separate self-rating-scales were used to assess religiosity, happiness, mental health, and physical health Kuwait University Anxiety Scale (KUAS) Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Scale (CES-D) Arabic	Males had higher scores on happiness, mental health, and physical health. Females had higher mean scores on religiosity, anxiety, and depression. Positive correlation between religiosity, happiness, mental health, and physical health, and negative between these four rating scales and anxiety and depression.
Abdel-Khalek (2009)	Saudi Arabia, 7211 (2159 male and 5052 female)	Five self-rating scales assess religiosity, happiness, satisfaction, mental health, physical health Multidimensional Child and Adolescent Depression Scale (MCADS)	Correlations are significant between religiosity and both SWB ratings (positive) and depression (negative).
Abdel-Khalek (2010a)	Kuwait, 224 (106 male and 118 female)	Arabic version World Health Organization Quality of Life-Brief (WHOQOL-Brief) Scale Questions on physical health, mental health, happiness, satisfaction, religiosity, and religious belief	Happiness/Religiosity (r = .219, p < .01). Satisfaction with life/Religiosity (r = .171, p < .05). Satisfaction/happiness (r = .814, p < .01).
Abdel-Khalek (2010b)	Kuwait, 487 (216 male and 271 female)	Six separate scales, assess religiosity, religious belief, physical health, mental health, happiness, and satisfaction Personality scales of neuroticism (N); (1) Factorial Arabic Neuroticism Scale (FANS), (2) The N subscale of the revised NEO	Religiosity is positively associated with SWB variables, physical health, mental health, happiness, and satisfaction with life, religiosity is negatively correlated with N.
Abdel-Khalek (2011a)	Kuwait, 499 (249 male and 250 female)	Six scales, assess religiosity, religious belief, physical health, mental health, happiness, and satisfaction with life Self-esteem Scale (SES) KUAS	Correlations are significant between religiosity and SWB rating scales, self-esteem (positive), and anxiety (negative).
Abdel-Khalek (2011b)	Egypt, 224 (101 male and 123 female)	1.Arabic versions Oxford Happiness Inventory (OHI) 2.Love of Life Scale (LLS) 3.Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) 4.Five scales assessed physical health, mental health, happiness, satisfaction, and religiosity	Correlations are significant and positive, including subjective well-being measures with religiosity. Correlations between measures of subjective well-being are higher than correlations between well-being and religiosity. Correlations with religiosity ranged from .16 (self-rating of physical health) to .48 (self-rating of satisfaction).
Abdel-Khalek (2012a)	Egyptian, 577 (214 male and 363 female) Kuwaiti, 674 (332 male and 342 female)	Arabic Scale of Mental Health (ASMH) SES Five questions to assess religiosity, physical health, mental health, happiness, and satisfaction with life	Egyptian and Kuwaiti men obtained significantly higher mean scores. Kuwaiti men and women had significantly higher mean scores on all the scales than their Egyptian counterparts. All correlations are significant and positive. The main predictors of religiosity were self-esteem, happiness, satisfaction and mental health.
Abdel-Khalek (2012b)	Kuwait, 1420 (719 male and 701 female)	OHI SWLS LLS Self-rating scales to assess happiness, physical health, mental health, and religiosity	Males had higher mean scores on religiosity, happiness and satisfaction with life. Correlations between the SWB variables are significant and positive as well as the SWB-religiosity associations.
Abdel-Khalek (2013a)	Qatar, 372 (194 male and 178 female)	Five questions to assess religiosity, mental health, physical health, happiness, and satisfaction with life	Significant and positive correlations between religiosity, health, and happiness. Main predictors of religiosity were satisfaction with life and happiness among boys, respectively.
Abdel-Khalek (2013b)	Qatar, 246 (113 male and 133 female)	OHI SWLS LLS Five questions to assess happiness, satisfaction with life, mental health, physical health, and religiosity	All the correlations between SWB, health, and religiosity are significant and positive.
Abdel-Khalek (2014a)	Lebanon, 239 (111 male and 128 female)	OHI SWLS LOLS Five questions to assess happiness, satisfaction with life, mental health, physical health, and religiosity	Boys: OHI/Religiosity (r = .227, p < .05). OHI/Satisfaction (r = .561, p < .001). Girls: OHI/Religiosity (r = .355, p < .001). OHI/Satisfaction (r = .307, p < .001).
Abdel-Khalek and Eid (2011)	Kuwaiti, 1937 (673 male and 1264 female) Palestine, 1009 (452 male and 557 female)	Five questions to assess religiosity, happiness, satisfaction, mental health, and physical health MCADS	Significant correlations of religiosity with the SWB variables, happiness, satisfaction with life, physical health, and mental health (positive), and depression (negative).
Abdel-Khalek et al. (2020)	Egypt, Study 1: 250 (125 male and 125 female). Study 2: 490 (243 male and 247 female)	Study 1: Five questions, to assess physical health, mental health, happiness, and SWL Study 2: Four of the five self-rating scales used in Study 1 were used. (The rating of mental health was omitted.) ASMH	In study 1, boys obtained higher mean scores than girls did, on religiosity, mental health, physical health, and satisfaction with life. In study 2, boys obtained higher mean scores on the ASMH and physical health and happiness. All the Pearson correlations between religiosity, well-being, and health significant and positive in both studies.
Abdel-Khalek and Lester (2009)	Kuwait, 162 (22 male and 129 female)	1.Intrinsic Religious Motivation Scale 2.Three separate single-item self-rating measures assessing religiosity, strength of religious belief, and happiness	Pearson correlations between happiness and Intrinsic Religious Motivation, religiosity, and strength of religious faith were .44, .30, and .28 (p < .01), respectively.
Abdel-Khalek and Lester (2010a)	Kuwait, 234 (106 male and 128 female)	Social and personal data sheet Four questions to assess happiness, physical health, mental health, and religiosity OHI SWLS Arabic Scale of Optimism and Pessimism (ASOP) Hope Scale SES Affect Balance Scale	Happiness and satisfaction with life are strongly associated variables with similar correlates. OHI/religiosity (r = .244, p < .01). SWLS/Religiosity (r = .194, p < .01).
Abdel-Khalek and Lester (2017)	Kuwait, 702 (311 male and 391 female)	Self-rating scales of religiosity and happiness Arabic Scale of Self-efficacy ASMH	Men had higher scores for self-efficacy and mental health. No significant sex-related differences in religiosity and happiness. Males – Religiosity/happiness (r = .202, p < .01). Religiosity/mental health (r = .190, p < .01). Women – Religiosity/happiness (r = .141, p < .01), religiosity/mental health (r = .215, p < .01).
Abdel-Khalek and Naceur (2007)	Algeria, 244 (109 male and 135 female)	Five questions assess religiosity, physical health, mental health, happiness, and satisfaction with life ASOP KUAS	Religiosity and satisfaction with life are higher in females. Religiosity is correlated with mental health in males. Religiosity correlated with, happiness, satisfaction with life, physical and mental health, and optimism in females.
Abdel-Khalek and Tekke (2019)	Malaysia, 238 (105 male and 133 female)	1.Arabic Scale of Intrinsic Religiosity (ASIR) 2.SES 3.Arabic Scale of Happiness (ASH) 4.ASMH 5.LLS 6.Four questions assess physical health, mental health, happiness, and satisfaction with life	Correlation – Men (N = 105) – Religiosity and happiness scale (r = .085), self-rating happiness (r = .281), satisfaction (r = .216). Women (N = 133) – Religiosity and happiness (r = .278), self-rating happiness (r  = .260), and satisfaction (r  = .262).
Achour et al. (2014)	Malaysia, 315 female	1.Family and job satisfaction measured using three items developed by Hackman and Oldham (1975) 2.SWLS 3.An 11-item self-report measure of “Strength of Religious Faith”	Correlation between personal well-being and religiosity. Well-being is correlated with beliefs and worship and prayer.
Achour et al. (2017)	Malaysia, 230 (117 male and 113 female)	1.35- item questionnaire measures subjective happiness and religious commitment 2.15-item Subjective Happiness Scale 3.20-item for religious commitment	Correlation between religious commitment and subjective happiness.
Ashkanani (2009)	Kuwait, 266 (55.7% males and 44.3% female)	1.Religiosity – used 15 items. 2.Psychological well-being: Ryff 84 item scale	Strong positive correlation between religiosity and well-being (r = .275; p < .01).
Baroun (2006)	Kuwait, 941 (408 male and 533 female)	1.The Intrinsic Religious Motivation Scale 2.Arabic version of the KUAS 3.Six self-rating scales were used, e.g., What is your level of religiosity, how is your mental health, and do you feel happy in general?	Correlation- intrinsic religiosity and mental health (r = .26, p = .001), mental health (r = .12), satisfaction (.26). MH and happiness (r = .61).
Bayani (2014)	Iran, 358 (165 male and 193 female)	1.OHI 2.Depression-Happiness Scale 3.Persian version of Religious Orientation Scale	Religious Orientation Scale correlated with OHI (r = .34, p < .001), as was Religious Orientation Scale and the Depression-Happiness Scale (r = .29, p < .001). Positive correlation between OHI and Depression-Happiness Scale (r = .80, p < .001).
Fatima et al. (2018)	Pakistan, 331 (68% male and 32% female)	1.Psychological Measure of Islamic Religiousness 2.Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS) 3.General Self-Efficacy Scale 4.Psychological Well-Being Scale	Positive associations between indices of religiosity (religious coping and practices) and PWB outcomes.
Francis et al. (2016)	Turkey, 348 (122 male and 226 female)	1.OHI 2.Religious Attitude Scale (Islam) 3.short-form Eysenck Personality Questionnaire Revised	Association between happiness and religiosity (r = .12, p < .05) scores of attitudes towards Islam provide a predictor of happiness, religious people are happier people (ß = .17, p < .001).
Gulamhussein and Eaton (2015)	USA, 50 female	Self-reported religiosity assessed Hijab frequency measured by “How frequently do you wear an Islamic headscarf?” Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale Beck Anxiety Inventory CES-D	Higher religiosity is linked with lower anxious and depressive symptoms.
Jesarati et al. (2013)	Iran, 370 (192 male and 178 female)	Islamic Involvement Questionnaire modified from Religiosity Orientation Scale Sahin–Francis Scale of Attitudes toward Islam based on Islamic principles Oxford Happiness Questionnaire (OV/Q)	Significant positive relationship between Happiness and Religious attitude (r = .33).
Momtaz et al. (2011)	Malaysia, 722 female	1.WHO-5 Well-being Index 2.Revised Intrinsic Extrinsic Religiosity Scale 3.Lubben Social Network Scale (LSNS-6)	Correlation indicated psychological well-being positively associated with religiosity (r = .27, p < .01) and negatively correlated with social isolation (r = .22, p < .01).
Parniyan et al. (2016)	Iran, 273 (85 male and 188 female)	The World Health Organization Quality of Life Questionnaire Religious Attitude Scale	Correlation between religious attitude and quality of life (r = .25, p = .001). Religious attitude and mental health (r = .04, p < .05).
Sahraian et al. (2013)	Iran, 271 (164 male and 107 female)	1.Farsi version of OHI2.Religious Attitude Questionnaire	Religious belief linked to level of happiness (r = .25, p = .01). Individuals with a more religious attitude experience more happiness.
Saleem et al. (2020)	Pakistan, 200 (100 male and 100 female)	1.Mental Health Inventory-38 2.Religiosity Measure Scale tapping belief salience, religious activities, frequency of prayer offering, and religious offering preference.	Participation in religious activities, belief salience, religious offering preference and prayer offering positively predicts mental health among university students.
Stuart and Ward (2018)	New Zealand, 155 (47 male and 108 female)	General Perceived Discrimination Scale Cultural Readjustment Rating Scale Social Identity Scale Islamic Practice Scale Life Satisfaction Scale Self-rating Depression Scale (ZSDS)	Well-being and religious identity (r = .20 p < .05) Well-being and Religious Practice (r = .36 p < .001). Religious practices positively predict well-being (ß = .31, p = .001), effect of religious identity was non-significant.
Tekke et al. (2018)	Malaysia, 189 (41 male and 148 female)	OHI Sahin-Francis Scale of Attitude towards Islam The shortened Eysenck Personality Questionnaire Revised	Association between happiness and religiosity (r  = .22, p < .01). Religious people are happier people (ß = .19, p < .01).
Tiliouine and Belgoumidi (2009)	Algeria, 495 (165 male and 330 female)	Comprehensive Measure of Islamic Religiosity (CMIR) Personal Well-being Index (PWI) SWLS Short version of Presence of Meaning in Life (PML)	High religious commitment leads to higher levels of satisfaction (F = 14.79, p < .001) with life and presence of meaning in lives (F = 5.78, p < .05).
Tiliouine et al. (2009)	Algeria, 2909 (1446 male and 1463 female)	Islamic Religiosity Scale (IRS) PWI Respondents rated some additional items on a scale from 0 to 10	Strong positive relationship with Subjective Well-Being (SWB) and religiosity but no link between SWL (measured through PWI) and religiosity was established.

Table 2. Shows a summary of the research conducted with Muslim samples and other groups.

Studies with Muslim sample and others
Author/year	Country/Participants	Measures	Finding/conclusion
Abdel-Khalek (2015)	Lebanon, 476 (215 male and 261 female)	Adapted OHI SWLS LLS Five questions to assess happiness, satisfaction with life, mental health, physical health, and religiosity	Men were higher on happiness and mental health. Women were higher on religiosity. Most correlations were positive except the self-rating scales of physical health and religiosity among men.
Abdel-Khalek and Lester (2007)	Kuwaiti, 460 (103 male and 357 female) USA, 274 (61 male and 212 female)	1.Three separate self-rating scales to assess religiosity, mental health, and physical health. 2.ASOP 3.KUAS 4.Arabic Scale of Obsession-Compulsion Death Obsession Scale (DOS) 5.Suicidal Ideation Questionnaire (SIQ) 6.Ego-Grasping Scale to Measure Adherence to a Taoist Orientation	Religiosity is associated with ratings of physical health, mental health, and optimism (both countries). Religious participants were healthier, more optimistic, and lower scores on psychopathology in both countries.
Abdel-Khalek and Lester (2010b)	Kuwaiti, 192 (47 male and 145 female) USA, 158 (45 male and 113 female)	OHQ LLS KUAS CES-D Six questions to assess happiness, satisfaction with life, mental health, physical health, religiosity, and religious belief	Kuwaiti students had higher scores on religiosity, religious belief, and depression than American students. Americans had higher scores on happiness and love of life. USA: OHQ/Religiosity (r = .205, p < .01). OHQ/satisfaction (r = .715, p < .01). Satisfaction/religiosity (r = .193, p < .05). Kuwait: OHQ/Religiosity (r = .258, p < .01). OHQ/satisfaction (r = .578, p < .01). Satisfaction/religiosity (r = .404, p < .01).
Abdel-Khalek and Lester (2013)	Kuwait, 154 (28 male and 126 female) USA, 154 (28 male and 126 female)	ASMH SES ASOP Hopelessness Scale (HS) Three questions to assess physical health, mental health, and religiosity	Kuwaiti students had higher scores on religiosity. Americans had higher scores on the ASMH and rating scales of mental health and physical health. Correlations between scales are statistically significant in the Kuwaiti sample, whereas 22 out of 28 correlations (78.6%) are significant in the American sample. Higher correlations between religiosity and other scales in the Kuwait sample.
Abdel-Khalek and Lester (2018)	Egyptian, 220 (105 male and 115 female) UK, 205 (98 male and 107 female)	Four questions to assess religiosity, happiness, satisfaction with life, and mental health	Egyptians had higher scores on religiosity, British higher SWB scores. Correlations between the self-rating scales are significnt and positive.
Abdel-Khalek and Singh (2019)	India, 370 (80 male and 290 female)	LLS ASH ASIR	Females obtained higher scores on LLS and religiosity. Correlations between scales are statistically significant and positive. Happiness and religiosity (males: r = .300, p < .01, females: r = .248, p < .01).
Abu Rahim (2013)	Malaysia, 124 (50 male and 74 female)	Four questions to assess happiness and religiosity	Life Satisfaction gives affects individual’s happiness compared to religiosity and frequent prayer.
Abu-Raiya and Agbaria (2016)	Israel-Palestine, 264 (71.8% male and 28.2% female)	General Religiosity Subscale Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS) Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) Adolescence Self-Control Scale Interpersonal Support Evaluation List (ISEL)	Religiousness is positively correlated with social support and self-control, and with subjective happiness and positive emotions.
Aghababei et al. (2016)	Iran, 474 (162 male and 312 female)	Persian version of The Religious Orientation Scale-Revised (ROS-R) Muslim Attitudes toward Religion Scale (MARS) Attitudes toward Science and Technology Scale (AST) Hope Scale Purpose in Life Test (PLT) SHS SWLS SES	Religious attitudes (MARS), religious orientations, and scientific attitudes (AST) positively correlated with happiness, life satisfaction, and self-esteem.
Devine et al. (2019)	Bangladesh, 1500 (male 92.9%)	Resource and Needs Questionnaire (RANQ) demographic and socio-economic profile of 1500 households in six sites (250 households each site). Second, core data analysis supplemented by qualitative data gathered 2008 till 2016	Religious identity determinant of happiness. Muslim household heads have higher levels of happiness than Hindus
Hashemi et al. (2020)	Australia, 382 (52.1% male and 47.9% female)	Multi-Religion Identity Measure (MRIM) MSPSS Brief Perceived Ethnic Discrimination Questionnaire–Community Version (PEDQ-CV) Psychological Well-Being (PWB-42) questionnaire	Religious identity direct effects and indirect effects on psychological well-being of ME migrants through social connectedness with ethnic community, perceived discrimination, and perceived social support.
Hossain and Rizvi (2017)	Oman, 335 (44.8% male and 55.2% female)	OHI Single-item scale of religiousness	Level of religiousness or religiosity had noticeable and positive significance on happiness (sig = .45).
Suhail and Chaudhry (2004)	Pakistan, 973 (477 male and 485 female, 11 N/A)	Extraversion/Introversion Scale (EIS) from Eysenck Personality Inventory Religiosity Scale (RS) SES Work satisfaction (WS) Marital satisfaction (MS) Social support (SS) Ladder Scale of General Well-Being (LSWB) Faces Scale	Correlation between Religiosity Scale and personal happiness is r = .12, p < .001 and correlation between Religiosity Scale and life satisfaction is r = .10, p < .01. Personal happiness & life satisfaction.

Figure 2. Bar graph showing happiness papers with Muslim populations.

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