The long-lasting effect of early life family structure on social position, well-being, and biological condition in adulthood

Figures & data

Table 1. The distribution of baseline characteristics, lifestyle behaviors, and health and life self-assessment for men aged 25–80 years, growing up in two types of families.

	Complete families		Incomplete families
	n	%	n	%
Level of education
Tertiary (16 years)	613	14.6	26	7.9
Secondary (12 years)	1105	26.3	47	14.3
Basic vocational (10–11 years)	1488	35.5	119	36.2
Primary (7–8 years)	993	23.6	137	41.6
	Chi^2 = 66.7; p < 0.0001
Marital status
Currently married	1733	41.27	137	41.64
Unmarried	2466	58.73	192	58.36
	Chi^2 = 0.02; p = 0.8957
Place of residence
Cities	2278	54.25	189	57.45
Towns	525	12.50	39	11.85
Villages	1396	33.25	101	30.70
	Chi^2 = 1.27; p = 0.5290
Smoking habit
Never	973	23.18	65	19.82
Quit	618	14.72	40	12.20
Smoke	2606	62.09	223	67.99
	Chi^2 = 4.53; p = 0.1037
Physical activity
Passive	2089	49.84	179	54.57
Non-regular	594	14.17	36	10.98
Regular	1508	35.98	113	34.45
	Chi^2 = 3.78; p = 0.1507
Drinking alcohol
Never	797	19.0	91	27.7
Occasionally	1998	47.6	137	41.8
Often	1399	33.4	100	30.5
	Chi^2 = 14.81; p = 0.0006
Health self-assessment
Good	2269	54.15	165	50.46
Good, although not recently	845	20.17	62	18.96
Chronic disease	440	10.50	43	13.15
Bad	636	15.18	57	17.43
	Chi^2 = 3.98; p = 0.2635
Life self-assessment
Satisfied	2813	67.67	202	62.73
Unsatisfied	1344	32.33	120	37.27
	Chi^2 = 3.31; p = 0.0689

Table 2. Raw data of biological and physiological variables for men raised in complete and incomplete families.

	All				Complete families				Incomplete families				Test U Mann–Whitney/p value
	Mean	Median	SD	Min–max	Mean	Median	SD	Min–max	Mean	Median	SD	Min–max
Age (years)	37.8	34	11.3	25–80	37.54	34	11.16	25–80	41.66	38	12.87	25–74	−5.62/0.0001***
Height (cm)	172.0	172.0	6.7	146–197	172.07	172.0	6.69	146.0–197.0	171.2	171.0	6.37	151–190	2.26/0.0240*
BMI (kg/m^2)	25.2	24.7	3.7	15.7–43.6	25.2	24.7	3.7	15.7–43.5	25.2	24.7	3.9	17.3–43.6	−0.03/0.9789
% Body fat	21.2	20	7.6	4–62	21.2	20.0	7.6	4.0–62.0	21.2	20.0	8.1	8–60	0.36/0.7191
Vital capacity (VC) (ml)	4276.4	4300	736.3	1300–6300	4286.4	4300.0	731.2	1300–6300	4148.6	4110	788.0	2000–6000	3.18/0.0015**
Forced expiratory volume in 1. second (FEV1) (ml)	3556.9	3600	678.2	700–5800	3567.2	3600	674.6	700–5800	3425.3	3430	710.2	1460–5800	3.78/0.0002***
heart rate, HR (beat/min)	74.0	74	6.5	45–120	74.0	74.0	6.5	45–120	73.9	74	7.1	45–115	0.38/0.7041
Systolic blood pressure, SBP (mmHg)	137.6	135	18.6	90–240	137.5	135	18.4	90–235	139.2	135	20.4	100–240	−0.80/0.4247
Diastolic blood pressure, DBP (mmHg)	83.5	80	10.5	54–135	83.5	80	10.5	54–135	84.2	80	10.8	60–121	−0.90/0.3679
Visual acuity (dioptries)	0.9	1.0	0.2	0.2–1.2	0.9	1.0	0.2	0.2–1.2	0.9	1.0	0.2	0.2–1.2	1.96/0.0501*
Red blood cell count, RBC, mln in 1 mm^3	5.1	5.1	0.3	3.1–6.8	5.1	5.1	0.3	3.1–6.8	5.0	5.0	0.4	4–6.4	2.40/0.0163*
White blood cell count, WBC, mln in 1 mm^3	6.9	6.7	1.8	3.2–17.0	6.9	6.6	1.8	3.2–17.0	7.0	6.8	1.7	3.3–12.9	−1.14/0.2557
Haemoglobin, HB (g/dl)	15.3	15.3	0.9	9.2–19.9	15.3	15.3	0.9	9.2–19.9	15.2	15.2	0.9	11–17.6	1.84/0.0656
Erythrocyte sedimentation rate, ESR (mm/h)	6.4	4	7.0	1–100	6.4	4	7.1	1–100	6.9	5.0	6.5	1–44	−2.52/0.0116*
Glucose (mg/dl)	113.5	110	16.4	55–395	113.3	110	15.1	55–320	116.5	112	28.2	76–395	−1.47/0.1410
Total cholesterol (mg/dl)	201.0	198	35.0	98–415	200.8	197	35.1	98–415	204.2	202	34.5	120–320	−1.88/0.0594
Calcium (mg/dl)	9.7	9.7	0.4	8.1–11.4	9.7	9.7	0.4	8.1–11.4	9.7	9.6	0.4	8.6–11.1	0.33/0.7402
Phosphorus (mg/dl)	3.3	3.3	0.5	1.2–8.5	3.3	3.3	0.5	1.2–8.5	3.4	3.4	0.5	1.8–4.7	−2.64/0.0082**
Total protein (g/dl)	7.6	7.6	0.5	4.6–9.9	7.6	7.6	0.5	4.6–9.9	7.5	7.5	0.4	6.3–9.0	2.04/0.0409*
Bilirubin (g/dl)	0.7	0.7	0.3	0.2–4.9	0.7	0.7	0.3	0.2–4.9	0.7	0.6	0.3	0.2–2.3	2.90/0.0037**
Creatinine (mg/dl)	1.0	1.0	0.2	0.4–3.5	1.0	1.0	0.2	0.4–3.5	1.0	1	0.1	0.7–1.6	0.51/0.6120
Alkaline phosphatase, ALPase (mg/dl)	59.5	55	18.3	20–350	59.3	55	18.3	20–350	61.7	58	17.7	20–155	−2.90/0.0037**

Level of significance: *p<⩽0.05; **p<0.01; ***p<0.001. 

Figure 1. The differences between the standardized mean values of the analyzed health parameters of men raised in complete and incomplete families.

21 bars representing differences in standardized values of health parameters for men raised in complete and incomplete families, arranged in ascending order, from the smallest (negative values) to the largest (positive values). Significant differences were achieved for bilirubin and % fat (lower values in incomplete families), and for alkaline phosphatase and phosphorus (higher values in incomplete families).

Figure 2. The differences between the standardized mean values of the analyzed health parameters of men raised in complete and single-parent families.

21 bars showing differences in standardized values of health parameters for men raised in complete families and single-parent families, arranged in ascending order from smallest (negative values) to largest (positive values). Significant differences were achieved for % fat (lower values in single-parent families), and for alkaline phosphatase and phosphorus (higher values in single-parent families).

Figure 3. The differences between the standardized mean values of the analyzed health parameters of men raised in complete families and parentless men.

21 bars showing differences in standardized values of health parameters for men raised in complete and parentless families, arranged in ascending order from smallest (negative values) to largest (positive values). Significant differences were achieved for body height and creatinine (lower values in parentless).

Figure 4. The differences between the standardized mean values of the analyzed health parameters of men raised in single-parent families and parentless men.

21 bars showing differences in standardized values of health parameters for men raised in single-parent families and parentless, arranged in ascending order from smallest (negative values) to largest (positive values). Significant differences were achieved for body height and creatinine (lower values in parentless) and diastolic blood pressure (higher values in parentless).

Figure 5. Standardized values of height of men raised in different types of families.

Line graph (means and +/− 95 CI) for standardized values of male body height. Significantly the lowest were men raised without both parents.

Table 3. The net effects of family type as a determinant of childhood SES status and current SES of adult men – results of two-way analyses of variance.

	Mean square	Test F	p Value
Height
A: Education	10.08	10.49	<0.0001***
B: Type of family	0.05	0.06	0.8049
Interaction: A × B	0.15	0.16	0.9232
% Body fat
A: Education	0.91	0.91	0.4338
B: Type of family	0.76	0.76	0.3817
Interaction: A × B	0.10	0.10	0.9602
Diastolic blood pressure
A: Education	7.95	8.00	<0.0001***
B: Type of family	4.42	4.45	0.0350*
Interaction: A × B	2.91	2.93	0.0322*
Creatinine
A: Education	21.24	22.05	<0.0001***
B: Type of family	3.40	3.53	0.0604
Interaction: A × B	2.81	2.92	0.0327*
Alkaline phosphatase
A: Education	5.41	5.52	0.0009***
B: Type of family	1.36	1.39	0.2379
Interaction: A × B	0.37	0.38	0.7656
Phosphorus
A: Education	0.2396	0.24	0.8684
B: Type of family	4.41	4.42	0.0355*
Interaction: A × B	0.74	0.74	0.5250

Level of significance: *p<⩽0.05; **p<0.01; ***p<0.001. 

Figure 6. Standardized values of diastolic blood pressure of men raised in different types of families by current level of education.

Two line graphs (mean and +/− 95 CI) for standardized diastolic blood pressure values of men from complete and incomplete families, in four educational categories. Men from incomplete families and those with the highest education had the lowest diastolic blood pressure.

Figure 7. Standardized values of creatinine of men raised in different types of families by current level of education.

Two line graphs (mean and +/− 95 CI) for standardized serum creatinine values of men from complete and incomplete families, in four educational categories. Men with the lowest levels of creatinine had the lowest levels of education.

Figure 8. Standardized values of phosphorus of men raised in different types of families by current level of education.

Two line graphs (mean and +/− 95 CI) for standardized serum phosphorus values of men from complete and incomplete families, in four educational categories. Men from incomplete families had higher serum phosphorus values.