Glassware design and drinking behaviours: a review of impact and mechanisms using a new typology of drinking behaviours

Figures & data

Figure 1. Logic model to organise evidence on the impacts of drinks containers on micro- and macro- drinking behaviours, with two proposed mechanisms: perception and affordance.

Figure 2. Image to depict the midpoints of 330 ml portions in outward-sloped and straight-sided glasses, as in Langfield et al. (2018) and Langfield et al. (2020).

Figure 3. Plots to show affordance by glass shape of volume remaining (%) by angle of tilt. ‘A’ illustrates the relationship with glass dimensions as used by Langfield et al., 2018; Study 1 (Langfield et al., 2020). ‘B’ illustrates the relationship with more extreme dimensions.

Table 1. Typology of macro- and micro- drinking behaviours.

	Behaviour	Definition	Measurement	Example references
Macro	Amount consumed	Amount that is consumed (e.g., ml). Also referred to as ad libitum consumption, total intake, volume ingested, volume consumed etc.	Measure the volume consumed (ml), for example by weighing the drink(s) before and after consumption.	Kersbergen et al. (2018); Langfield et al. (2020)
	Amount purchased	Amount that is purchased. This can be used as a proxy for amount consumed (particularly in field studies with no direct measurement of behaviour).	Calculate the amount spent (e.g., £), and transform into volume (ml) purchased.	Pechey et al. (2016); Clarke et al. (2019); Troy et al. (2015)
	Amount poured	Amount that is poured (e.g., ml). This can be a self-defined serving, a specific volume (e.g., ‘standard drink’). Can be used as a proxy for consumption (or, combined with number of drinks to calculate b amount consumed)	Measure the volume poured (ml), for example by weighing the drink(s) before and after the pour, or by using measuring cylinders.	Wansink and Van Ittersum (2003); Knibb et al. (2018); Langfield et al. (2018)
	Number of drinks	Number of drinks consumed. This can be calculated for a given consumption occasion (e.g., how many times people pour themselves another glass) or across consumption occasions (e.g., number of drinks per week). Can be used as a proxy for consumption (or, combined with amount poured or served to calculate amount consumed).	Count the number of drinks served, poured, purchased, or consumed. For example, observe and count the total number of beverages (e.g., pints of beer) sold over an evening.	No studies identified
Micro	Total drinking time	Time taken to consume a drink (e.g., min). Also referred to as speed of consumption, drinking speed, drinking rate, total time drinking etc.	Measure the time it takes to consume a given drink (e.g., with a stopwatch, or from coding video recordings).	Attwood et al. (2012); Zupan, Pechey, et al. (2017); Troy et al. (2017); Brunstrom et al. (2000); Langfield et al. (2018)
	Sip size	Size of sip (ml). Also known as sip volume, bolus volume.	To measure exact sip sizes, hidden weighing scales can be used, or participants can be asked to spit into a cup. To determine average sip size, divide total volume consumed by number of sips, which can be counted from video recordings of drinking sessions.	Langfield et al. (2020); Lawless et al. (2003); Bennett et al. (2009); Langfield et al. (2018)
	No. of sips	Number of sips taken to consume a drink. Also known as sip frequency.	Can count number of sips from video recordings of drinking sessions.	Attwood et al. (2012); Zupan, Pechey, et al. (2017); Troy et al. (2017)
	Sip rate	Rate of sipping (e.g., ml/s).	Mean sip size is divided by total time spent drinking, to give sip rate.	Tomaszewski et al. (1980)
	Sip duration	Time taken to drink a sip. Related concepts are orosensory exposure time and total bout duration (although these are often operationalised as a total – i.e., across all sips – while sip durations often refer to an average based on individual sips).	Can measure sip durations using video recordings of drinking sessions, and coding when each sip is initiated, and when it ends.	Attwood et al. (2012); Zupan, Pechey, et al. (2017); Troy et al. (2017); Brunstrom et al. (2000); Langfield et al. (2018)
	Interval duration	Length of time between sips. Also known as inter-sip interval / idle time / inter-bout interval	Can measure interval durations using video recordings of drinking sessions, and coding when each sip ends, and when the next is initiated.	Attwood et al. (2012); Troy et al. (2017); Brunstrom et al. (2000); Langfield et al. (2018)
	Drinking trajectory	Dynamic pattern of drinking rate across the drinking period. Also known as dynamic drinking rate, drinking rate across the drinking period.	Extract height information from video recordings and map height of liquid:glass to volume, based on a model of volume by height ratios. Alternatively use a hidden weighing scale (for example, in a drinks coaster), to plot the weight of the glass periodically on a graph. Helpful to plot drinking trajectories within a standardised period, if comparing between individuals. Some example drinking trajectories include: ‘S’ shaped (cubic); accelerated (exponential); decelerated (logarithmic); linear.	Cliceri et al. (2018); Langfield et al. (2020)
	No. of swallows	Number of swallows taken during the consumption of a drink. Note – may differ from number of sips – e.g., a large sip may be swallowed in two gulps.	Microphone attached to throat can be used, to identify timing of swallow (and thus the number of swallows in a given time period).	Bennett et al. (2009)

Note: Macro-drinking behaviour: measures of drinking outcomes involving consumption, or proxies for consumption. Micro-drinking behaviour: a form of short-term influence on drinking. Also known as: drinking topography, oral processing behaviours, microstructure of drinking behaviour.

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