The impact of circadian timing on energy balance: an extension of the energy balance model

Figures & data

Figure 1. Diagram of energy balance model depicting physiological, behavioral, and psychological changes aimed at balancing energy intake and energy expenditure.

Table 1. Characteristics of original research studies cited in review.

Study Citation	Sample Species/Type	Sample Size (n)	Study Type	Rating of Control for Extraneous Variables	Key Extraneous Factors Controlled For	Key Extraneous Factors Not Controlled For	Study Aims/Protocol Designed to Distinguish Between Circadian Factors and Masking Effects?
Circadian Timing of Food Intake and Energy Balance
Adamovich et al. (2014)	Wild-type and clock-disrupted male mice	4 per group	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	Locomotor activity	Yes
Andersson et al. (1996)	Men with obesity and normal weight men	86 men with obesity; 61 normal weight men	Observational	Low	Energy intake	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Physical activity	No
Arble et al. (2009)	Male mice	6 per group	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake; Locomotor activity	N/A	No
Bandín et al. (2015)	Women	32; 10 in one protocol and 22 in another protocol	Experimental	High	Feeding/fasting schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Energy intake; Energy expenditure	Light/dark schedule; Body mass index^a	No
Barnea et al. (2009)	Male mice	4 per group	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	Locomotor activity	Yes
Baron et al. (2011)	Adult humans	52	Observational	Moderate	Sleep/wake schedule	Light/dark schedule; Physical activity^a	No
Barrington and Beresford (2019)	Adult humans	2389	Observational	Moderate	Physical activity	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule	No
Betts et al. (2014)	Adults aged 21–60 living in southwest England	33; 12 men and 21 women	Experimental	High	Feeding/fasting schedule	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Body mass index^a	No
Bo et al. (2014)	Non-obese, non-diabetic middle-aged adult humans	1245	Observational	Moderate	Physical activity	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule	No
Bolli et al. (1984)	Non-diabetic adult males	8	Observational	Moderate	Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake; Sleep/wake schedule; Physical activity	Light/dark schedule	No
Bray et al. (2010)	Male wild-type mice	Not provided	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule	Physical activity^a	No
Buonfiglio et al. (2018)	Male rats	35; 5–10 per group	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Food intake	Locomotor activity	No
Carlson et al. (2007)	Healthy, normal-weight 40–50 year-old adults	15; 5 men and 10 women	Experimental	High	Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Physical activity	No
Chaix et al. (2014)	Male wild-type mice	392; mice randomly assigned into one of six feeding regimens with 8–32 mice per group	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	Physical activity^a	No
Chow et al. (2020)	Adult humans with overweight or obesity	17 women and 3 men: 11 in time-restricted eating group; 9 in unrestricted eating group	Experimental	High	Feeding/fasting schedule; Body weight loss	Light/dark schedule; Energy intake; Sleep/wake schedule; Physical activity^a	No
Chowdhury et al. (2016)	Adults aged 21–60 living in southwest England	23; 8 men and 15 women	Experimental	High	Feeding/fasting schedule	Sleep/wake schedule^a; Energy intake^a; Physical activity^a; Body mass index^a	No
Corbalan-Tutau et al. (2012)	Normal-weight and obese women	20 normal-weight women and 50 women with obesity	Observational	Low	N/A	Light/dark schedule; Physical activity; Sleep/wake schedule^a; Feeding/fasting schedule^a	No
Dattilo et al. (2010)	Healthy adults aged 19–45 years	24 men and 28 women	Observational	Low	Physical activity	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule	No
de Castro (2004)	Adult humans	375 men and 492 women	Observational	Low	N/A	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Physical activity	No
de Castro (2007)	Adult humans	375 men and 492 women	Observational	Moderate	N/A	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Physical activity; Body mass index^a;	No
de Castro (2009)	Adult humans	388 men and 621 women	Observational	Moderate	N/A	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Physical activity	No
Delahaye et al. (2018)	Male mice	Total of 4 diet groups with 10–11 mice assigned to each group	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	Locomotor activity	No
Eckel-Mahan et al. (2013)	Mice	90; 45 per feeding group	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	Physical activity	Yes
Garaulet et al. (2013)	Adults with overweight and obesity	420	Observational	Low	N/A	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Physical activity^a; Total energy expenditure^a	No
Geliebter et al. (2014)	Adults with overweight	36; 12 participants per condition	Experimental	Moderate	Feeding/fasting schedule	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Resting energy expenditure^a	No
Gill and Panda (2015)	Healthy, non-shift-working adults	Baseline: 156; 65 men and 91 women Follow-up: 8; 5 men and 3 women	Baseline: Observational Follow-up: Experimental	Baseline: Low Follow-up: Low	Baseline: N/A Follow-up: N/A	Baseline: Physical activity Follow-up: Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Energy intake	No
Gluck et al. (2008)	Healthy non-diabetic Pima Indians and whites	117 Pima Indians and 43 whites	Experimental	Moderate	Light/dark schedule; Energy intake	Sleep/wake schedule; Physical activity	No
Goel et al. (2009)	Adult females	15 patients with night eating syndrome and 14 controls	Observational	Moderate	N/A	Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake^a	No
Hara et al. (2001)	Male mice	4–10 per group	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule	Energy intake; Locomotor activity^a	Yes
Hatori et al. (2012)	Male mice	24	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	Locomotor activity^a	No
Hirao et al. (2009)	Per2::luciferase knock-in mice	26	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	N/A	Yes
Hirao et al. (2010)	Per2::luciferase knock-in mice	24 intact mice and 21 lesioned mice	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule	N/A	Yes
Hutchison et al. (2019)	Adult men	15	Experimental	Moderate	Feeding/fasting schedule	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Energy intake; Physical activity^a	No
Itokawa et al. (2013)	Per2::luciferase knock-in mice	3–10 mice were analyzed per study condition	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule	Food anticipatory activity^a	Yes
Jakubowicz et al. (2012)	Sedentary non-diabetic adult men and women with obesity	193; 96 assigned to high carbohydrate and protein-enriched breakfast diet and 97 assigned to low carbohydrate diet	Experimental	High	Energy intake	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Physical activity^a	No
Jakubowicz et al. (2013a)	Lean women with polycystic ovarian syndrome	60	Experimental	High	Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Physical activity^a; Body mass index^a	No
Jakubowicz et al. (2013b)	Women with overweight or obesity	93; 46 assigned to breakfast meal plan protocol and 47 assigned to dinner meal plan protocol	Experimental	High	Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Physical activity^a	No
Jamshed et al. (2019)	Overweight adults	11	Experimental	Moderate	Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake; Physical activity	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule	No
Kahleova et al. (2017)	Members of Seventh-day Adventist churches in the United States and Canada aged ≥30 years	50,660	Observational	Moderate	Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake; Physical activity	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule	No
Kant and Graubard (2015)	United States adults aged 20–74 years	62,298	Observational	Moderate	Body mass index^a	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Physical activity	No
Kant et al. (1997)	United States adults aged 25–74 years	2580 men and 4567 women	Observational	Moderate	Energy intake; Physical activity; Body mass index	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule	No
Karatzi et al. (2017)	Greek primary school children	1912	Observational	Moderate	N/A	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Sleep/wake schedule	No
Kelly et al. (2020)	Healthy adults 50 years of age or older	6; 4 men and 2 women	Experimental	High	Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	Light/dark schedule^a; Sleep/wake schedule^a; Energy intake^a; Physical activity^a	No
Kohsaka et al. (2007)	Mice	12 mice fed regular chow and 10 mice fed high-fat diet	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule	Feeding/fasting schedule; Locomotor activity^a	Yes
Kuroda et al. (2012)	Homozygous Per2::luciferase knock-in mice	6 mice per condition	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	Food anticipatory activity^a	Yes
Kutsuma et al. (2014)	Japanese adults aged 20–75 years	60,800; 38,123 men and 22,677 women	Observational	Moderate	N/A	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Sleep/wake schedule	No
la Fleur et al. (2001)	Male rats	44	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule	Energy intake	No
Lamia et al. (2008)	Wild-type mice and mice with a liver-specific disruption of Bmal1	7–9 mice per genotype	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule	Locomotor activity^a; Energy intake	Yes
Lax et al. (1998)	Adult male rats	32	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule	Locomotor activity	Yes
LeCheminant et al. (2013)	Healthy young men	29	Experimental	High	Feeding/fasting schedule	Sleep/wake schedule; Physical activity	No
Leidy et al. (2007)	Adult women	38; 21 assigned to higher protein diet and 17 assigned to normal protein diet	Experimental	High	Energy intake	Sleep/wake schedule; Body mass index^a; Physical activity^a	No
Lopez-Minguez et al. (2018)	Adult women with overweight or obesity	40; 20 homozygous risk non-allele carriers and 20 homozygous carriers for MTNR1B rs10830963	Experimental	High	Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	Physical activity; Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule^a	No
Martens et al. (2020)	Healthy non-obese midlife and older adults	22	Experimental	High	N/A	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Energy expenditure^a	No
Masri et al. (2014)	Liver-specific SIRT6 knock-out mice, liver-specific SIRT1 knock-out mice, and wild-type mice	Not provided	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule	Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake; Physical activity	Yes
McHill et al. (2017)	Young adults aged 18–22 years	110; 64 men and 46 women	Observational	Moderate	Light/dark schedule	Sleep/wake schedule; Energy intake^a; Physical activity^a	No
McHill et al. (2019)	Young adults aged 18–22 years	106; 61 men and 45 women	Observational	Moderate	Light/dark schedule	Physical activity; Sleep/wake schedule^a;	No
Mills et al. (2011)	Midlife women	1099	Observational	Moderate	Physical activity	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Sleep/wake schedule	No
Moro et al. (2016)	Males with at least 5 years of experience in resistance training	34	Experimental	High	Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake; Physical activity	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule	No
Oike et al. (2011)	BALB/cAn mice and Per2::Luciferase knock-in mice	3–8 mice per group	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule	Locomotor activity	Yes
Okada et al. (2019)	Japanese women aged 40–74 years	19,687	Observational	Moderate	Physical activity	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule	No
Parr et al. (2020)	Men with overweight or obesity	11	Experimental	High	Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule^a; Physical activity^a	No
Przulj et al. (2021)	Adults with obesity	50	Experimental	Low	N/A	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Physical activity; Feeding/fasting schedule^a	No
Qin et al. (2003)	Medical students aged 20–23	7; 6 men and 1 woman	Experimental	Low	Feeding/fasting schedule; Sleep/wake schedule	Light/dark schedule; Physical activity; Energy intake	No
Rains et al. (2015)	Overweight premenopausal women	35	Experimental	High	Feeding/fasting schedule	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Physical activity	No
Rangaraj et al. (2020)	Adults without diabetes, aged 21–50 years	44	Observational	Moderate	Sleep/wake schedule; Body mass index; Energy intake	Light/dark schedule	No
Reid et al. (2014)	Adult men and women	59	Observational	Moderate	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	N/A	No
Ruiz-Lozano et al. (2016)	Bariatric surgery patients	270; 57 men and 213 women	Observational	Low	N/A	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Energy intake^a; Total energy expenditure^a	No
Sajjad et al. (2014)	Male and female medical students	234; 122 men and 112 women	Observational	Low	N/A	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	No
Saladin et al. (1995)	Rats	3–7 per group	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule	Locomotor activity; Energy intake	No
Scheer et al. (2013)	Healthy adults without obesity	12; 6 men and 6 women	Experimental	Moderate	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake; Sleep/wake schedule; Physical activity	N/A	Yes
Schlundt et al. (1992)	Women with moderate obesity	52	Experimental	High	Energy intake	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule	No
Spaeth et al. (2014)	Healthy adults aged 21–50 years	44; 23 men and 21 women	Experimental	Moderate	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Physical activity	Feeding/fasting schedule	No
Stokkan et al. (2001)	Rats	3–9 per group	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule	N/A	Yes
Stote et al. (2007)	Healthy, normal-weight 40–50 year-old adults	15; 10 women and 5 men	Experimental	High	Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Physical activity^a	No
Striegel-Moore et al. (2008)	United States adults aged 15–39 years	8250; 2068 exhibiting night eating syndrome and 6182 not exhibiting night eating syndrome	Observational	Low	N/A	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Physical activity	No
Tahara et al. (2011)	Male ICR mice and homozygous Per2::luciferase knock-in mice	3–6 mice per group	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule	Locomotor activity	Yes
Tuomi et al. (2016)	Adult human islet cells; Melatonin-receptor knockout and wildtype mice	25 adults; 3–25 mice per group	Experimental	High	For mice: Feeding/fasting schedule	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Physical activity/Locomotor activity; Energy intake For humans: Feeding/fasting schedule	No
Van Cauter et al. (1989)	Healthy individuals without obesity	14; 7 males and 7 females	Experimental	Moderate	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	Sleep/wake schedule; Physical activity	No
Versteeg et al. (2018)	Men with obesity and insulin resistance	23	Experimental	Moderate	Energy intake	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule^a; Physical activity	No
Vollmers et al. (2009)	Male wild-type mice and circadian clock-deficient mice	3–8 mice per group	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule	Locomotor activity; Energy intake^a	Yes
Westerterp-Plantenga et al. (1996)	Women with and without obesity	32; 16 with obesity and 16 without obesity	Experimental	Low	Feeding/fasting schedule; Physical activity	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule	No
Wilkinson et al. (2020)	Adults with metabolic syndrome and a baseline mean eating window of ≥ 14 h/day	19	Experimental	Moderate	N/A	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake; Physical activity^a	No
Circadian Timing of Physical Activity and Energy Balance
Alizadeh et al. (2015)	Women with overweight	46	Experimental	Low	N/A	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule	No
Alizadeh et al. (2017)	Women with overweight	48; 25 in morning aerobic exercise and 23 in evening aerobic exercise	Experimental	Moderate	N/A	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule	No
Chomistek et al. (2016)	Women	7157	Observational	Moderate	Energy intake	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule	No
Dalbram et al. (2019)	Male mice, assigned to either a high – or low-fat diet and to either sedentary or voluntary wheel running conditions	96; 24 mice per group	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule	Energy intake^a	No
Di Blasio et al. (2010)	Sedentary post-menopausal women	29; 14 morning walkers and 15 early evening walkers	Experimental	Low	N/A	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Sleep/wake schedule	No
Haugen et al. (2003)	Healthy men and women aged 21–67 years	37; 12 men and 25 women	Experimental	Low	Feeding/fasting schedule	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule	No
Keim et al. (1997)	Women	10	Experimental	High	Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule	No
Kelly et al. (2020)	Healthy adults 50 years of age or older	6; 4 men and 2 women	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	N/A	No
Kline et al. (2020)	Adults with overweight or obesity	125	Observational	Moderate	N/A	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake; Physical activity	No
Kräuchi and Wirz-Justice (1994)	Generally healthy male adults	7	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake; Sleep/wake schedule	N/A	Yes
Larsen et al. (2019)	Inactive men with overweight	11	Experimental	Moderate	Feeding/fasting schedule	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Energy intake	No
Maraki et al. (2005)	Healthy, normal-weight females aged 18–45	12	Experimental	Low	Feeding/fasting schedule	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule	No
Marinac et al. (2019)	Adults	125	Observational	Moderate	Physical activity	Energy intake	No
Moholdt et al. (2021)	Adult males with overweight or obesity	24; 8 per exercise condition	Experimental	High	Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake; Physical activity	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule	No
Morris et al. (2015)	Healthy adults	13	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	N/A	Yes
Romon et al. (1993)	Young men working a night shift	9	Experimental	High	Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	Light/dark schedule	No
Spengler et al. (2000)	Healthy adult males	10	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	N/A	Yes
van Moorsel et al. (2016)	Young lean Caucasian males	12	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	N/A	No
Willis et al. (2020)	Physically inactive young adults with overweight or obesity	88	Experimental	High	Physical activity	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake^a	No
Zitting et al. (2018)	Healthy adults	13; 7 in forced desynchrony group and 6 in control group	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	N/A	Yes
An Integrated Approach to the Study of Energy Balance
Booth et al. (2012)	Young adults with parental history of type 2 diabetes	48	Observational	Moderate	Body mass index	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake;	No
Calvin et al. (2013)	Sedentary, healthy and normal-weight adults aged 18–40	11 men and 6 women, with 5 of the men and 3 of the women randomly assigned to sleep deprivation condition	Experimental	High	Sleep/wake schedule	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule	No
Greer et al. (2013)	Healthy adults	23	Experimental	High	Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	Light/dark schedule; Physical activity	No
Kant and Graubard (2014)	American adults ≥ 20 years old	15,199	Observational	Moderate	N/A	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Physical activity	No
Kim et al. (2011)	Women aged 35–74 years living in the United States or Puerto Rico	27,983	Observational	Moderate	Body mass index	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Physical activity	No
Markwald et al. (2013)	Healthy adults	16; 8 men and 8 women	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Physical activity	N/A	No
McHill et al. (2014)	Healthy adults	14; 6 men and 8 women	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	N/A	Yes
Nedeltcheva et al. (2010)	Overweight non-smoking adults	10	Experimental	High	Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	Light/dark schedule	No
Ravussin et al. (2019)	Adults with overweight	11	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	N/A	No
Sasaki et al. (2014)	Male mice	3–16 mice per condition	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule	N/A	No
Schmid et al. (2009)	Healthy, normal-weight men	15	Experimental	Moderate	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule	N/A	No
Spaeth et al. (2015)	Healthy adults	47; 36 in sleep restriction group and 11 in control group	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Physical activity	Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	No
Spiegel et al. (2004)	Healthy men	12	Experimental	Moderate	Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake; Physical activity	Light/dark schedule	No
St-Onge et al. (2012)	Healthy, normal-weight adults	30	Experimental	Moderate	Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	Light/dark schedule; Physical activity	No
Sutton et al. (2018)	Men with prediabetes	8	Experimental	High	Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; energy intake; Physical activity	Light/dark schedule	No
Taheri et al. (2004)	Wisconsin, USA, adults aged 30–60 years	1,024	Observational	Moderate	N/A	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake; Physical activity^a	No
Tinsley et al. (2017)	Generally healthy, recreationally-active men	18	Experimental	Moderate	Feeding/fasting schedule; Physical activity	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Energy intake	No
Van Proeyen et al. (2010)	Healthy males aged 18–25 years	28	Experimental	Moderate	Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake; Physical activity	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule	No
Wong et al. (2015)	Adults without diabetes aged 30–54 years	224	Observational	Moderate	Energy intake; Physical activity	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule	No
Circadian Timing of Sleep and Energy Balance
Alves et al. (2017)	Poultry-processing plant employees aged 18–60 years	423; 122 worked early-morning shift, 133 worked day shift, 168 worked night shift	Observational	Moderate	N/A	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	No
Baron et al. (2011)	Adults with an evening or intermediate diurnal preference	52; 27 men and 25 women	Observational	Moderate	Sleep/wake schedule	Light/dark schedule; Physical activity^a	No
Beebe et al. (2017)	Nurses working either a day or night shift	103	Observational	Moderate	N/A	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	No
Cain et al. (2015)	Adults	16; 8 men and 8 women	Experimental	Low	Sleep/wake schedule;	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Physical activity	No
Centofanti et al. (2018)	Healthy adults	31; 13 men and 18 women	Experimental	Moderate	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake; Physical activity	N/A	No
Chaput et al. (2007)	Adults aged 21–64 years from the greater Quebec City area	740; 323 men and 417 women	Observational	Moderate	Physical activity	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	No
Chaput et al. (2015)	Children aged 9–11 years from Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Colombia, Finland, India, Kenya, Portugal, South Africa, the United Kingdom and the United States	5777	Observational	Moderate	Body mass index	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	No
de Assis et al. (2003)	Garbage collectors working morning, afternoon, and night shifts	22 participants for each work shift	Observational	Moderate	N/A	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule	No
Duncan et al. (2016)	Australian adults	1317	Observational	Moderate	Body mass index	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	No
Esquirol et al. (2009)	Males aged 39–60 years	198; 98 d workers and 100 rotating shift workers	Observational	Moderate	Physical activity	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule	No
Golley et al. (2013)	Children and adolescents aged 9–16 years	2200	Observational	Moderate	Physical activity	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule	No
Grant et al. (2017)	Healthy males	11; 4 assigned to eat at night and 7 assigned to not eat at night	Experimental	Moderate	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake; Physical activity	N/A	No
Hulsegge et al. (2016)	Adults aged 20–70 years	15092; 683 shift workers and 7173 d workers	Observational	Low	Physical activity; Body mass index	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule	No
Knutson et al. (1990)	Adult men	25; 12 shift workers and 13 d workers	Observational	Low	N/A	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule	No
Koopman et al. (2017)	Dutch adults aged 40–75 years	1585; 745 men and 840 women	Observational	Moderate	Feeding/fasting schedule; Physical activity; Body mass index	Light/dark schedule; Energy intake	No
Lennernäs et al. (1995)	Male industrial workers	96	Observational	Low	N/A	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Physical activity	No
Markwald et al. (2013)	Healthy adults	16; 8 men and 8 women	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	N/A	No
McHill et al. (2014)	Healthy adults	14; 6 men and 8 women	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	N/A	Yes
Mota et al. (2017)	Individuals with non-communicable chronic diseases (obesity, systemic arterial hypertension, type 2 diabetes mellitus or dyslipidemia) in Brazil	792	Observational	Moderate	Physical activity	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	No
Mota et al. (2019)	Individuals with obesity-related chronic diseases in Brazil	792	Observational	Moderate	Physical activity; Body mass index	Light/dark schedule	No
Nakamura et al. (2018)	Japanese workers	2062 daytime workers and 302 shift workers	Observational	Moderate	N/A	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Physical activity	No
Nooijen et al. (2018)	Swedish adults	12969; 5577 men and 7392 women	Observational	Moderate	N/A	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	No
Olds et al. (2011)	Free-living Australian adolescents aged 9–16 years	2200	Observational	Moderate	N/A	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	No
Parsons et al. (2015)	Individuals born between April 1972 and March 1973 in Dunedin, New Zealand, followed from birth until 38 years of age	1037	Observational	Moderate	N/A	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake; Physical activity	No
Pizinger et al. (2018)	Overweight adults	6; 4 men and 2 women	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake; Body mass index	Physical activity	No
Polugrudov et al. (2017)	High school students and workers from the European North of Russia with normal weight	66	Experimental	Moderate	Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake; Physical activity; Body mass index	Light/dark schedule	No
Reinberg et al. (1979)	Healthy adult men	7	Observational	Low	N/A	Light/dark schedule; Physical activity	No
Roenneberg et al. (2012)	Individuals aged 16–65	64110	Observational	Moderate	N/A	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake; Physical activity	No
Roskoden et al. (2017)	Employees at a medical care center in Germany	46	Observational	Low	N/A	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule	No
Rutters et al. (2014)	Adults	145; 67 men and 78 women	Observational	Moderate	Feeding/fasting schedule	Light/dark schedule; Energy intake	No
Schechter et al. (2013)	Females aged 22–43 years with body mass index of 23.4–27.5 kg/m2	10	Experimental	High	Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	Light/dark schedule	No
Schechter and St-Onge (2014)	Adults	22	Observational	Moderate	Body mass index	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	No
Silva et al. (2016)	Undergraduate students in Brazil	204; 92 men and 112 women	Observational	Moderate	Body mass index	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake; Physical activity	No
Spaeth et al. (2013)	Healthy adults aged 22–50 years	225	Experimental	High	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Physical activity	N/A	No
Taylor et al. (2016)	Non-shift working women aged 48–58 years	370	Observational	Moderate	Exercise	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	No
Wakui et al. (2002)	Healthy females	9	Observational	Low	N/A	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	No
Wittmann et al. (2006)	Humans aged 14–94 years	501; 198 men and 303 women	Observational	Moderate	N/A	Light/dark schedule; Sleep/wake schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake; Physical activity	No
Zerón-Rugerio et al. (2019)	Young adults aged 18–25 years	534	Observational	Moderate	Physical activity	Light/dark schedule; Feeding/fasting schedule; Energy intake	No

Note: In order to be classified as a true circadian rhythm,a biological rhythm must meet three criteria: (1) rhythm is entrainable (i.e., reset by external stimuli); (2) rhythm exhibits temperature compensation; and (3) rhythm has an endogenous free-running period lasting approximately 24 h, independent of ‘masking’ effects by environmental and/or behavioral cycles. Diurnal rhythms cannot be classified as circadian unless these are confirmed to be endogenous and independent of masking effects, e.g., forced desynchrony or constant routine protocols for human research.

^a Variable was measured and explored in initial analyses by researchers and was indicated to be intentionally left out as a control variable for an empirical reason, e.g., variable did not differ between experimental groups.

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