Daily life and women’ stressors through a structural topic modeling application of online messages

Figures & data

Figure 1. Overall research procedures

Table 1. Overview of included in the literature review according to stressors-induced context, number of participants, type of stressor, and measurement

Study	Year	Context	Participants	Type of stressors	Measurement
Andrea et al. (Andrea et al., 2020)	2020	pregnancy	364,588 (age 20 and over)	poverty-related antenatal stressors: economic hardship (moved to a new address, experienced homelessness, husband/partner lost their job etc.), relationship conflict (separated/divorced from her husband/partner, argued with her husband/partner more than usual, husband/partner said he didn’t want her to be pregnant etc.)	archival data
Eick et al. (Eick et al., 2020)	2020	pregnancy	510 females (over age 18)	psychosocial stressors: poor neighborhood quality, caregiving, discrimination, financial strain, etc.	self-report survey
Enkhjav et al. (Enkhjav et al., 2020)	2020	workplace	101 female employees (age 18–40)	challenge stressors at work: time pressures, workload, job responsibility	self-report survey
Gilbert-Ouimet et al. (Gilbert-Ouimet et al., 2020)	2020	workplace	1,307 female (under or over age 45)	psychological work stressors: job strain, low social support	self-report survey
Hotton et al. (Hotton et al., 2020)	2020	NA	224 females (age 24–37)	socio-structural stressors: poverty, employment, incarceration, homelessness	self-report survey
Kazemi et al. (Kazemi et al., 2020)	2020	pregnancy	13 female who had given birth (age 18–39)	human-related stressors: personal factors (hearing about troubles, fear of therapies, fear of childbirth etc.), care staff-related factors (the presence of a large number of medical staff, misbehavior of care staff, and lack of attention to the patient’s status); environmental stressors: environmental factors (noise, improper labor space), equipment-related factors (lack of equipment and facilities, fear of hospital equipment)	interview
Muasya (Muasya, 2020)	2020	NA	375 female teachers	role stressors: inadequate support from home, interruptions in the normal flow of work and family schedules (e.g., sick child), strain and time-related stressors at home (e.g., not enough sleep), strain and time-related stressors at work (e.g., workload)	open-ended questions
Um et al. (Um et al., 2020)	2020	refugee living	North Korean refugee females (over age 19)	migration-related stressors: premigration traumatic experience and postmigration, discrimination	self-report survey
Bastain et al. (Bastain et al., 2019)	2019	pregnancy	291 females (under age 20 to 40 and over)	social environmental stressors: neighborhood crime safety, interpersonal violence, unemployment, traffic-related air pollution	self-report survey
Holman (Holman, 2019)	2019	workplace	case of sexual minority	minority stressors: discrimination, anticipation of stigma, concealment of the minority identity	Interview
Martinez & Bámaca-Colbert (Martinez & Bámaca-Colbert, 2019)	2019	school	338 female students (early and middle adolescent)	peer stresors: interpersonal conflict with peers at school; school stressors: interpersonal conflict with school personnel	self-report survey
Rosemberg et al. (Rosemberg et al., 2019)	2019	hotel workplace	49 female hotel housekeepers (age 21–59)	work-related stressors: job strain; nonwork stressors: everyday experiences of discrimination	self-report survey
Van Bortel et al. (Van Bortel et al., 2019)	2019	workplace	182 female workers (age 20–63)	occupational stressors: work and agency (e.g., insecurity in relation to their employment), pervasiveness of financial need (e.g., financial concern for sustaining their families), family and obligation (e.g., obiligation as the caregiver and bread-winner)	self-report survey
Kim et al. (YJ Kim et al., 2018)	2018	school life	374 female students (age 14–17)	family stress, friendship stress, school stress	self-report survey
Muzny et al. (Muzny et al., 2018)	2018	lifetime	165 females (age 17–59)	psychosocial stressors: depressive symptoms, incarceration, intimate partner violence	self-report survey
Suzuki et al. (Suzuki et al., 2018)	2018	NA	middle-aged females (age 40–60)	relationship with husband, uneasiness about old age, health concerns, work-life balance, relationship with friends	self-report survey
Westcott et al. (Westcott et al., 2018)	2018	lifetime	876 female health professionals (over age 45)	work stress (e.g., excessive work); work-family spillover stress (e.g., too stressed to participate in after work activities); financial stress (e.g., difficulty paying monthly bills); traumatic life event (e.g., death of a child); everyday discrimination (e.g., poor service); intimate partner stress (e.g., conflict with a partner); neighborhood stress (e.g., neighborhood safety); negative life event (e.g., life-threatening illness)	self-report survey
Yalch et al. (Yalch et al., 2018)	2018	during military service	407 female military veterans (age 18–70)	traumatic stressors: military sexual assault, others (been wounded/injured, lost someone close to them, felt in danger of being killed, witnessed someone else killed/injured, etc.)	self-report survey
Bariola et al. (Bariola et al., 2017)	2017	workplace	476 females (age 40–71)	work-related stressors (e.g., job autonomy)	self-report survey
Chung et al. (Chung et al., 2017)	2017	workplace	583 female worker (age 30–49)	occupational stressors: job demand, job control, lack of social support, job insecurity, workplace mistreatment	self-report survey
Dao-Tran et al. (Dao-Tran et al., 2017)	2017	life	440 females (age 60–94)	life stressors: losing a loved one, abortion/miscarriage, serious money problems, serious physical/mental illness, experiencing a natural disaster	self-report survey
Harner et al. (Harner et al., 2017)	2017	during confinement	95 incarcerated females (age 23–81)	financial stressors: paying for medical care, performing physically demanding work for minimal pay, relying on others for financial support	interview
Rao et al. (Rao et al, 2017)	2017	life	120 homemaker and employed females	daily stresors: interpersonal problem, personal competency, cognitive stressors, environment hassles, varied stressors	self-report survey
Wang et al. (Wang et al., 2017)	2017	workplace	1,130 female nurses	occupational stressors: high extrinsic effort, low reward, overcommitment	self-report survey
Belknap (Belknap, 2016)	2016	life	10 females	migration stressors: economic hardship	interview
Jin et al. (Jin et al., 2016)	2016	pregnancy	22 females (age 24–41)	cross-cultural stressors: language, food, time consciousness, values, mental process and beliefs	self-report survey
Lipsky et al. (Lipsky et al., 2016)	2016	NA	11,308 non-Hispanic White, 4,261 non-Hispanic African-American/Black, 3,640 Hispanic females (age 20 to over 70)	ethnic minority stressors: acculturation (adoption of dominant culture practices and values), discrimination	self-report survey
Brown et al. (Brown et al., 2015)	2015	disease specific	29 HIV-infected females (age 23–64)	disease specific stressors: disclosure of current status to others, medication adherence, discrimination from others general life stressors: substance (drug, alcohol) abuse, depression, childcare, difficulties of establishing/maintaining roma tic relationships, financial difficulties	focus group interview
Gómez et al. (Gómez et al., 2015)	2015	pregnancy	51 pregnant females (age 19–38)	everyday stressors: daily stressors (role overload, financial concerns, employment, interpersonal conflict), parenting concerns (children’s overall well-being, not enough time to do things, problems with transportation)	self-report survey
Molina et al. (Molina et al., 2015)	2015	NA	470 females (age 18–26)	minority stressors: experienced social prejudice and stigmatizing (experienced stigma), knowing sexual orientation status (outgroup status), internalization of negative societal attitudes (internalized stigma)	self-report survey
Andrews et al. (Andrews et al., 2014)	2014	daily	663 females (age 18 to 65 and over)	neighborhood stressors: neighborhood disorder (e.g., observing people selling drugs), exposure to violence (e.g., family member attacked)	self-report survey
Choi et al. (Choi et al., 2014)	2014	life	54 female drinkers (age 18–55)	life stressors: poverty, unemployment, marital disruption, relational abuse, violence	interview
Corney et al. (Corney et al., 2014)	2014	disease specific	10 single childless females (age 27–41)	partnership worries, fertility concerns, potential concerns about emotional and practical support from health professionals and other organizations	interview
Jaremka et al. (Jaremka et al., 2014)	2014	daily	50 female (age 30–65)	interpersonal stressors; non-interpersonal stressors	self-report survey
Lewis et al. (Lewis et al., 2014)	2014	NA	220 lesbian females (age 22–88)	sexual minority stressors: internalized homophobia, social con traints in talking with family/friends about one’s minority sexual identity	self-report survey
Saint et al. (Onge et al., 2014)	2014	pregnancy	118,062 females (age under 20 to 35 and over)	social stressors: argument with a partner, a sickness of a close family member	self-report survey
Willer (Willer, 2014)	2014	pregnancy	233 females (age 22–44)	infertility stressors: infertility treatment (e.g., financial and emotional burdens), the experience of infertility (e.g., increased depression), relational challenges (e.g., difficulty of support from partners)	self-report survey
Ewen et al. (Ewen & Chahal, 2013)	2013	late-life	26 older females (mean age = 76)	late-life stressors: changes in living environment due to relocation housing	interview
Giurgescu et al. (Giurgescu et al., 2013)	2013	pregnancy	114 pregnant females (age 18–35)	chronic stressors: exposure to racial discrimination, living in poor neighborhoods	interview and survey
Johansson et al. (Johansson et al., 2013)	2013	mid-life	800 females (over age 38)	psychosocial stressors: physical illness in spouse, mental illness in mother, limited social contacts	predefined-checklist
Muñoz (Muñoz, 2013)	2013	immigrant	4 female students (age 20–23)	immigration stressors: lack of financial aid, lost internship opportunities	interview
Yan et al. (Yan et al., 2013)	2013	military life	79 female veteran (mean age = 25.57)	interpersonal stressors: problems communicating with significant others, difficulties interacting with previously close relatives/friends; problem with infidelity deployment or military-related stressors: harassment, discrimination; health of self/others: mental/physical health problems; death of loved ones daily needs: inancial/housing/transportation concerns; civilian employment/school-related: having difficulty finding/obtaining a job	self-report survey
Bloom et al. (Bloom et al., 2012)	2012	pregnancy	24 pregnant rural female (age 18–34)	financial stress (e.g., lack of employment, transportation, afforadable housing options), extended family interdependence, small-town gossip, isolation/lonliness, boredom	interview
Foster (Foster, 2012)	2012	while imprisoned	201 inmate women (age 22–54)	importation stressors: maternal childhood traumas (e.g., economic hardship, abuse); deprivation stressors: lack of contact with one’s children	self-report survey
Jennings-Kelsall et al. (Jennings-Kelsall et al., 2012)	2012	military family life	312 pages within 123 threads in discussion boards (August 10, 2006 to September 22, 2009)	socioemotional stressors: stuck in a state of flux, going through changes, relational uncertainty, loneliness, alienation; anxiety related to deployment relational stressors: issues of control and helplessness, concerns over privileging individual or relational goals, the matter of locus of blame	open coding
Kitsantas et al. (Kitsantas et al., 2012)	2012	pregnancy	34,161 females/untimely prenatal care initiation (age 12 to 33 and over)	life stressors: moving residence, having a sick family member, arguing with their partners, having bills they could not pay	self-report survey
Wooten (Wooten, 2012)	2012	military life	101 military service females (age 21–61)	pre-deployment stressors: physical abuse; childhood sexual abuse deployment stressors: life/family disruptions, sexual assault/harassment	self-report survey
Dailey & Humphreys (Dailey & Humphreys, 2011)	2011	pregnancy	119 females receiving prenatal care (mean age = 25)	social stressors: discrimination, trauma exposure, economic stress, social conflict	self-report survey
Humphreys et al. (Humphreys et al., 2011)	2011	life	217 females (age 18–79)	life stressors: lifetime trauma exposure (e.g., harassment at work, separated from children, miscarriage, drug/alcohol, friend murdered, maltreatment of someone else)	self-report survey
Norris et al. (Norris et al., 2011)	2011	life	519 females (age 26–68)	postmigration stressors: demands of immigration related to loss, not feeling at home	self-report survey
Ajrouch et al. (Ajrouch et al., 2010)	2010	NA	736 female caregivers (mean = 30.8 years)	situational stressors: food insufficiency, neighborhood disorganization	self-report survey
Everett et al. (Everett et al., 2010)	2010	life	41 females (age 18–55)	social stressors: time commitments in balancing work and family responsibilities, role strain, finances, racism and sexism in the workplace	interview
Hinton & Earnest (Hinton & Earnest, 2010)	2010	daily	70 females: 33 young (age 18–24), 27 adult (age 25–44), 10 older females (over age 44)	economic constraint, workload demands, unsupportive marital relationships	focus group discussion, in-depth interview, participatory diagramming, narratives and storytelling
Ndlovu et al. (Ndlovu et al., 2010)	2010	living with HIV	6 HIV-positive females (age 23–58)	child-related stressors, housing-related stressors	interview
Pal et al. (Pal et al., 2010)	2010	pregnancy	89 infertile females (under age 42)	psychosocial stressors: personal history of abuse, family history of abuse (alcohol/recreational drugs)	self-report survey
Wiklund et al. (Wiklund et al., 2010)	2010	childhood and adolescence	40 females (age 16–25)	modernity (e.g., possibilities to choose and change rationality), gender orders (e.g., conflicting feminine positions), youth (e.g., failing adult and societal support)	interview

Table 2. Characteristics and description of the documents and lemma data sets

	# of documents	Unique number of lemmas (NOUN)	Number of lemmas (NOUN)
Raw documents (w/o preprocessing)	54,195	—	-
Analyzable documents	54,000	281,008	2,637,532
Semantic documents	52,540	35,486	1,532,418
Interpretable documents	52,494	21,025	1,499,585
Preprocessing	10,725	12,051	232,084

Table 3. Performance of the emotion tagging model

	Candidate Model 1	Candidate Model 2	Candidate Model 3
N rounds	56	510	895
Accuracy	.7	.75	.75
F1	.73	.75	.76
Precision	.65	.74	.74
Recall	.84	.77	.77
Balanced Accuracy	.70	.75	.75
Final Decision (Rank)	3	2	1 (Final model)

Table 4. LDA model fit indices for optimal topic number decisions

K	Held out	Residual	Bound	lbound	em.its
3	−7.22592	28.62204	−1,583,848	−1,583,846	5
4	−7.03667	27.88790	−1,538,774	−1,538,771	83
5	−7.03094	28.83703	−1,534,534	−1,534,529	114
6	−6.97449	29.10335	−1,526,365	−1,526,359	174
7	−7.01444	29.77847	−1,530,279	−1,530,270	134
8	−6.95612	29.73823	−1,529,760	−1,529,749	173
9	−7.00276	29.99363	−1,518,843	−1,518,830	151
10	−6.96868	30.33250	−1,517,872	−1,517,857	138

Table 5. Topics identified and related exemplars

#	Age group	Top FREX words	Pro. (%) by each age group	Pro. (%) by each topic	Exemplar sentences in the topic documents	Topic label
1	20s	taxi, elder sister, middle-aged man, age, mid, father, driver	3.02%	9.52%	I often use taxis because of the convenience they provide in going where I want to go. However, I went through something unpleasant this morning … .I guess a taxi driver didn’t know the exact location because he was not going to the right turn lane.	Mismatch of expected role demands
	30s	elder sister, age, younger sister, couple, mid, father, move	3.68%		My elder sister is doing postpartum care. (Currently) I quit my job and am looking for another one. Thus, my mother is telling me to do my elder sister’s housework, and I did everything I could. But she doesn’t appreciate it.
	40s	elder sister, age, father, middle-aged man, bus, mid, couple	1.84%		Now, I’m in my 40s. I get really angry when I see people with bad manners in public, such as when they are talking on the bus or making a loud call on the phone. Especially, when I see someone cutting in line while waiting to pay at a supermarket or elsewhere, I get truly angry.
	Over 50	menopause, age, father, test, hello, favor, worry	0.98%		My father-in-law is 60 years old and he suddenly collapsed for no reason. … Now, he can’t walk and vomited without food. I don’t know what’s wrong.
2	20s	friend, boyfriend, brother (called boyfriend), text message, contact, talk	7.92%	21.21%	I met someone on a blind date. However, as time passed, there was less contact from my boyfriend, and he rarely talked to me. Then a week later, he sent a short text message saying, “I’m sorry I couldn’t contact you”. It was really ridiculous.	Problems/lack of communication
	30s	friend, contact, text message, call, person, brother (called husband), talk	7.94%		Oh, I feel very lonely after getting married. It wasn’t like this before. I want to make a friend to talk.
	40s	friend, contact, bride, text message, person, dawn, note	3.72%		I’m old enough to go through menopause. I just recall the memories of my friend in my hometown. But, I don’t have any close friends at the moment.
	Over 50	friend, person, hello, talk, mother, conversation, phone call	1.63%		Last night on my birthday, my husband and I argued while engaging in a conversation about different opinions. (And so) the next day, we came to work without breakfast. I’m still a little depressed.
3	20s	person, regret, self, love, romantic relationship, alone	6.29%	15.86%	I’m in a long-distance relationship. I’m always lonely even though I often call my boyfriend because I’m a person who relies on him. … By the way, my boyfriend says we should break up due to the mismatch between each other’s personalities.	Interpersonal discontinuity
	30s	company, love, self, thought, anymore, real, window	5.52%		My house is a two-story house. One day, the smell of tobacco came up from the window downstairs. … It’s really annoying to see him face to face whenever I go out in the hot summer.
	40s	regret, wind, time, feeling, world, self, life	3.21%		I feel regretful every day. My children say they’re all grown up, so no more interference, and my husband wants his time. … I think I’ve done as much duty as I can in my parental role now.
	Over 50	youth, wife, time, senior person, content, mind, anymore	0.83%		I feel like I’m still young. But when young people give up their seats to me, I feel embarrassed and uncomfortable.
4	20s	skin, points, model, product, advertisement, event, cosmetics	1.69%	4.77%	I have a lot of worries about my skin condition. Suddenly, these days, I get pimples even if I’m stressed out.	Physical and mental concerns/problems
	30s	product, goods, points, redeem, cosmetics, skin, purchase	1.69%		I have a fever on my face. Well, it’s so hard to find suitable cosmetics for my skin type.
	40s	food, coffee, participation, effect, purchase, meal, intake	0.90%		It’s been a while since I haven’t been able to go to the bathroom. I’m having difficulty in passing stools.
	Over 50	blood pressure, no charge, program, fee, precaution, doctor, medical care	0.49%		My blood pressure was supposed to drop to normal while I was taking medicine, but it didn’t. Is that strange? The doctor is wondering, but he just tells me to take the medicine and to be careful.
5	20s	cellphone, phone bill, telephone, lane, left turn, report, baby	1.84%	4.94%	My mom hates me staying out overnight. Even worse, if I don’t get my mom’s call while playing with my friends outside, I get scolded a lot for not answering the phone. I’m going crazy because it’s so controlling.	Discomfort of living
	30s	disease, function, baby, treatment, member, afternoon, constipation	1.67%		I quit my job to have a baby as soon as I got married, but I can’t get pregnant. Also, artificial insemination failed. Now, we will do in vitro fertilization, but I’m worried that it will cost a lot in the end.
	40s	product, middle aged woman, personnel, camera, parking lot, usage, girl student	0.94%		Last night, the refrigerator in my house broke down and eventually the food I kept went bad. After-sales service personnel said they need to change the fridge because it’s beyond repair. But I can’t afford to pay for food and don’t know what to do. I’m mentally stressed.
	Over 50	participation, family, case, treatment, e-mail, application, contact	0.49%		While my husband is being treated for dental implants, he says it hurts a lot. Also, it costs a lot of money and takes a long time. In this situation, I feel sad and tired with respect to the time and money, but I can’t tell my husband about it.
6	20s	female, marriage, bag, couple, investigation, date, glasses	5.31%	15.47%	I’ve had a boyfriend for over a year. I’m paying for almost all the dating expenses. As time goes by, I’ve started getting so angry and irritated.	Role conflict in interpersonal relationships
	30s	marriage, female, cellphone, new year, salary, exercise, middle-aged man	6.87%		I don’t know why every day is like hell. The work I do is not fun and I live in lethargy every day. … I have to exercise to lose weight, and everything feels annoying.
	40s	female, marriage, man, new year, exercise, treatment	2.65%		On new year’s morning, my OO-year-old daughter wouldn’t wake up no matter how much I tried to wake her up. And I was cooking steamed eggs in a stove. Finally, I hectically went to work in the morning. … My daughter contacted me later and nagged me that I didn’t even turn off the gas stove. I think these are the lifestyle of women in their mid-40s. So, I don’t feel excited yet in the new year.
	Over 50	female, marriage, elder, autumn, man, hair, worry	0.64%		I’m the eldest daughter in a family with only daughters. … I’ve been living in luxury since I got married, but the financial situation has been ruined by the impact of the IMF (International Monetary Fund) crisis. Also, it’s hard and exhausting because we can’t rely on each other. The stress of being a member of my family is too much.
7	20s	study, job, mother, father, grade, private educational institute, exam	4.41%	12.65%	I have obtained certification and am continuously preparing to get a job. But I’m not good at speaking foreign languages, so I will try to study and get a job next year. It’s not going as well as I want and I’m not very sure.	Problems with maintaining/choosing a career
	30s	mother, husband, study, child, son, school, grade	5.26%		After I got married and gave birth to a child, I took almost two years off from work. Now, I’m tired, as I’m working again. But I’m irritated and worried about my child because of my husband, who’s showings bad feelings about this decision.
	40s	daughter, mother, private educational institute, husband, study, son, school	2.20%		I regret not being able to send my daughter to a high school for academically advanced students. I should have made my daughter study hard to get good grades since middle school. I regret not trying as hard to send her to the private institute as other ambitious mothers.
	Over 50	son, child, university, parents, children, talk, graduation	0.77%		Until now, my children have been studying hard and have been healthy. So, they enrolled a famous university that is recognized by others, and they are about to graduate from it. However, I am worried that my eldest child has suffered from hypersensitive gastrointestinal disorders that cause indigestion due to poor health after interning abroad, and he has not been able to live a normal daily life.
8	20s	today, company, weather, go to work, morning, day, tomorrow	4.02%	15.58%	I’m working two jobs, but I’m not sure if I can still work even when I’m pregnant. (Because) our company doesn’t have maternity leave and it’s so stressful.	Family caregiving burden
	30s	bride, go to work, today, morning, husband, leave the office, weekend	7.21%		I’m pregnant these days. I’m so tired that it’s really hard to wake up in the morning. And after feeding my first child, I get going late every day and go to work. So, it would be nice if my mother-in-law, who lives with me, could help me a little in the morning. … This morning I got annoyed with my child, and I got irritated with my husband.
	40s	today, weather, evening, morning, go to work, day, insurance	3.47%		I sent my husband to work, my children to school, and took care of my parents-in-law going out. … It’s like this treadmill thing every day. It makes me annoyed every morning.
	Over 50	evening, weather, morning, go to work, holiday, day, yesterday	0.88%		There’s only one day left this year. Why do I always feel sorry about this time of year? I don’t know what my life is. … They (family members) just wake up in the morning and then come home in the evening.

# topic numbers/pro: proportion of each topic in the entire document

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