Infectious diseases following natural disasters: prevention and control measures

Figures & data

Table 1. Breakdown of natural disasters recorded from 2000 to 2011 and potential secondarily-associated infectious diseases^†.

Country	Disaster event	Year(s)	Infectious disease outbreak following natural disaster	Ref.
USA	Tornado	2011	Cutaneous mucormycosis	[25]
Japan	Earthquake	2011	Diarrhea (norovirus), influenza	[109]
Haiti	Earthquake	2010	Cholera	[108]
Cote d’Ivoire	Flood	2010	Dengue	[113]
Brazil	Flood	2008	Dengue	[112]
USA	Hurricane (Katrina)	2005	Diarrhea, TB	[18,24]
Pakistan	Earthquake	2005	Diarrhea, hepatitis E, ARI, measles, meningitis, tetanus	[11,21]
Dominican Republic	Flood	2004	Malaria	[110]
Bangladesh	Flood	2004	Diarrhea	[8]
Indonesia	Tsunami	2004	Diarrhea, hepatitis A and E, ARI, measles, meningitis, tetanus	[13,22]
Thailand	Tsunami	2004	Diarrhea	[14]
Iran	Earthquake (Bam)	2003	Diarrhea, ARI	[12]
Indonesia	Flood	2001–2003	Diarrhea	[9]
USA	Hurricane (Allison)	2001	Diarrhea	[17]
Taiwan	Typhoon (Nali)	2001	Leptospirosis	[20]
China	Typhoon (Nali)	2001	Leptospirosis	[20]
El Salvador	Earthquake	2001	Diarrhea, ARI	[15]
Thailand	Flood	2000	Leptospirosis	[110]
Mozambique	Flood	2000	Diarrhea	[10]
India (Mumbai)	Flood	2000	Leptospirosis	[19]

^†Summarizes natural disasters that had resulted first in substantial population displacement and then exacerbated risk factors for disease transmission and outbreaks.

ARI: Acute respiratory infection.

Table 2. Risk factors and onset of communicable diseases following natural disasters^†.

Major risk factors following natural disasters	Water-borne diseases				Air-borne/droplet diseases					Vector-borne diseases			Contamination from wounded injuries			Clinical phase of natural disasters
	Diarrhea (cholera; dysentery)	Leptospirosis	Hepatitis		ARI (pneumonia/ influenza)	Measles	Meningococcal meningitis	TB		Malaria	Dengue fever		Tetanus	Cutaneous mucormycosis		Impact phase (0–4 days)	Postimpact phase (4 days- 4 weeks)	Recovery phase (>4 weeks)
Population displacement from nonendemic to endemic areas										✓	✓							✓
Overcrowding (close and multiple contacts)	✓				✓	✓	✓	✓									✓
Stagnant water after flood and heavy rains	✓	✓								✓	✓							✓
Insufficient/contaminated water and poor sanitation conditions	✓		✓														✓
High exposure and proliferation to disease vectors		✓								✓	✓
Insufficient nutrient intake/malnutrition	✓				✓	✓		✓										✓
Low vaccination coverage						✓
Injuries													✓	✓			✓	✓

^†Disasters do not carry diseases/epidemics. Disease risk factors need to be in place and exacerbated as a result of the after effects of the disaster.

ARI: Acute respiratory infection.

Table 3. Prevention and control checklist of recorded infectious diseases following natural disasters.

Prevention and control of infectious diseases following natural disasters	Water-borne diseases				Air-borne/droplet diseases					Vector-borne diseases			Contamination from injury/wound
	Diarrhea (cholera; dysentery; others)	Leptospirosis	Hepatitis		ARI/pneumonia/influenza	Measles	Meningococcal meningitis	TB		Malaria	Dengue fever		Tetanus	Cutaneous mucormycosis
Site planning	✓				✓	✓	✓
Clean water	✓
Good sanitation (e.g., excreta disposal)	✓		✓
Solid waste management										✓	✓
Water and food hygiene	✓		✓
Nutrition and supplements					✓	✓		✓
Vaccination						✓
Vector control										✓	✓
Personal hygiene (e.g., hand washing)	✓		✓		✓			✓
Personal protection		✓			✓					✓	✓
Insecticide-treated nets										✓
Isolation of the sick					✓			✓
Prophylactic treatment										✓
Wound/injury care													✓	✓
Health education	✓	✓	✓		✓	✓	✓	✓		✓	✓		✓	✓
Disease management/treatment and or supportive care (follow national guidelines)	✓	✓	✓		✓	✓	✓	✓		✓	✓		✓	✓

Specific communicable diseases applicable to the preventive and control measure given.

ARI: Acute respiratory infection.

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