Cerium oxide nanoparticles: green synthesis and biological applications

Figures & data

Table 1 Green synthesis methods of CeO₂-NPs

Method of green synthesis	Applied material/organism	Particle size (nm)	Morphology of NPs	Critical point of view	Reference
Plant-mediated synthesis	Gloriosa superba	5	Spherical	Different kinds of alkaloids acted as stabilizing agents	^Citation33
Plant-mediated synthesis	Acalypha indica	36	Spherical	Agglomeration of particles were observed due to covalent bonding of the individual particles	^Citation34
Plant-mediated synthesis	Aloe vera	63.6	Spherical		^Citation35
Fungus-mediated synthesis	Curvularia lunata	5–20	Spherical	Enzymes, proteins and heterocyclic derivatives could act as reducing and capping agent	^Citation37
Nutrient-mediated synthesis	EW protein	8.2, 11.7 and 17.3	Spherical	Being soluble and foam-like in water, EW has several proteins acting as stabilizing agents	^Citation47
Nutrient-mediated synthesis	Honey	23	Spherical	Follow-up the sol–gel method	^Citation48
Biopolymer-mediated synthesis	Agarose	10.5	Spherical	Follow-up the sol–gel method	^Citation51
Biopolymer-mediated synthesis	Starch	6	Spherical	Providing ultrafine product	^Citation27
Biopolymer-mediated synthesis	Gum	10	Spherical		^Citation27
Biopolymer-mediated synthesis	Dextran	5	Spherical	pH-dependent response	^Citation57
Biopolymer-mediated synthesis	Polyethylene glycol	~2	Spherical	Providing a framework for designing a hybrid metal oxide sol	^Citation58
Biopolymer-mediated synthesis	Chitosan	~10	Spherical	Applicable in food borne mycoplasma detection	^Citation61

Abbreviations: EW, egg white; NPs, nanoparticles.

Figure 1 Schematic representation of Gloriosa superba-based method of cerium oxide nanoparticle synthesis.

Table 2 Advantages and challenges of different methods of CeO₂-NPs green synthesis

Type of green method	Advantages	Disadvantages/challenges
Plant-mediated synthesis of CeO2-NPs	Capable of generating spherical shaped NPs that possessed reduced cytotoxicity	Possibility of providing nonuniform morphology in some case which could be attributed to agglomeration of the individual NPs
	Easy process, cost-effectiveness, energy and time-consuming technique
		Size of obtained NPs exhibited wide distribution range from 5 to 63.6 nm using different bio-organisms for synthesis
	Capable of producing stable, water dispersible and highly fluorescent NPs
Nutrient-mediated synthesis of CeO2-NPs	Controllable growth and subsequent isotropic formation of small and stable CeO2-NPs	Significant difference at the maximum concentration, which was safe for the cells using EW (800 μg/mL) or honey (100 μg/mL) as a stabilizing agents
	Capable of providing spherical shaped CeO2-NPs Narrow distribution range of particle size Nontoxic effects of synthesized CeO2-NPs toward human cell lines at physiological concentrations of NPs
Biopolymer-mediated synthesis of CeO2-NPs	Generating NP with spherical morphology Providing NPs with no significant cytotoxic effect in human cell line at physiological concentrations Capable of controlling diameter of CeO2-NPs Providing NPs with high final purity Producing small CeO2-NPs

Abbreviations: CeO₂-NPs, cerium oxide nanoparticles; EW, egg white.

Figure 2 Schematic representation of the Gum base method of CeO₂-NP synthesis.

Abbreviation: CeO₂-NPs, cerium oxide nanoparticles.

Figure 3 Major parameters affect the cytotoxicity of CeO₂-NPs.

Abbreviation: CeO₂-NPs, cerium oxide nanoparticles.

Table 3 Different types of enzyme mimicking activities of cerium oxide nanoparticles

Enzyme mimicking activities	Mechanism	References
SOD	M^(n+1)+-SOD + O2^− → M^n+-SOD + O2 M^n+-SOD + O2^− + 2H^+ → M^(n+1)+-SOD + H2O2	^Citation75, ^Citation76
Catalase	H2O2 + H2R → 2H2O + R	^Citation68, ^Citation80, ^Citation81
Peroxidase	ROOR’ + 2e^− + 2H^+ → ROH + R’OH	^Citation2

Abbreviation: SOD, superoxide dismutase.

Figure 4 Superoxide dismutase mimetic activity of CeO₂-nanoparticles.

Figure 5 H₂O₂ could make displacement of adsorbed DNA from CeO₂-NPs, resulting in fluorescence signal enhancement.

Abbreviation: CeO₂-NPs, cerium oxide nanoparticles.

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