Advanced glycoxidation and lipoxidation end products (AGEs and ALEs): an overview of their mechanisms of formation

Figures & data

Figure 1. Major steps in the Maillard reaction of reducing sugars following the well-known Hodge scheme.

Figure 2. Relevant molecules involved in Maillard reaction. The first row includes α-dicarbolyls, the second row collects cyclization products, and the third row shows carbonyl derivatives generated by sugar fragmentation.

Figure 3. Major pathways for the formation of the glyoxal-derived AGEs in vivo.

Figure 4. Schematized pathways for MGO formation and catabolism (dotted lines indicate nonenzymatic MGO formation). Adapted from [105].

Figure 5. Major pathways for the formation of the methylglyoxal-derived AGEs in vivo.

Figure 6. Schematized pathways for 3-DG formation and catabolism.

Figure 7. Major pathways for the formation of the 3-DG-derived AGEs in vivo.

Figure 8. Major pathways for the formation in vivo of the AGEs deriving from direct rearrangement of the Amadori products.

Figure 9. Structures of the most reactive carbonyl species arising from lipidoxidation break-down and prostaglandin metabolism.

Figure 10. General reaction mechanisms of ALEs formation for hydroxylated and nonhydroxylated α,β-unsaturated aldehydes with specific focus to HNE-derived ALEs.

Figure 11. Reaction mechanisms of formation for the ONE-based adducts with nucleophilic sites. Adapted from [22].

Figure 12. Reaction mechanisms of formation for the acrolein-based adducts with nucleophilic sites.

Figure 13. Reaction mechanisms of formation for the isoketal-based adducts with nucleophilic sites.

Figure 14. Reaction mechanisms of formation for the MDA-based adducts with nucleophilic sites.

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