Dietary intake and the risk of hyperuricemia, gout and chronic kidney disease in elderly Taiwanese men

Figures & data

Table I.  Clinical characteristics of 752 elderly men, stratified by serum uric acid-related conditions in Elderly NAHSIT, Taiwan, 1999–2000.§

Variables	Serum uric acid-related conditions*				P value^†
	Normouricemic group (N = 329)	Untreated hyperuricemia (N = 228)	Treated hyperuricemia (N = 44)	CKD group (N = 151)
Age (yrs)	72.6 (5.0)	71.6 (4.5)	72.3 (5.1)	74.2 (6.2)	<.0001
BMI (kg/m^2)	22.8 (3.2)	24.0 (3.4)	24.6 (3.2)	24.0 (3.4)	<.0001
SBP (mmHg)	130.2 (19.2)	135.1 (18.1)	136.2 (25.2)	136.5 (21.4)	0.0022
DBP (mmHg)	74.9 (10.7)	78.1 (10.2)	76.5 (10.1)	76.1 (11.3)	0.0065
FPG (mg/dl)	118.6 (51.3)	111.4 (39.5)	116.0 (36.9)	110.9 (37.7)	0.1829
TC (mg/dl)	194.0 (39.5)	200.4 (37.0)	185.1 (33.3)	197.3 (42.5)	0.0631
HDL-C (mg/dl)	52.9 (15.3)	51.3 (15.4)	49.7 (16.4)	47.6 (14.0)	0.0052
LDL-C (mg/dl)	119.0 (34.1)	123.3 (33.7)	109.4 (30.0)	120.2 (37.6)	0.0889
TG (mg/dl)	87.0 [61.0]	106.5 [85.0]	102.5 [81.0]	110.5 [90.0]	<.0001
SUA (mg/dl)	5.7 (0.9)	8.2 (1.1)	7.9 (2.5)	8.2 (2.2)	<.0001
Serum creatinine (mg/dl)	0.9 (0.1)	1.0 (0.1)	1.0 (0.1)	1.6 (0.5)	<.0001
eGFR (ml/min/1.73 m^2)^‡	85.5 (13.9)	82.7 (20.1)	76.2 (12.6)	47.3 (10.8)	<.0001
Alcohol (g/wk)	30.4 (177.0)	25.4 (104.7)	11.1 (22.2)	9.5 (46.8)	0.3953

BMI, body mass index; SBP, systolic blood pressure; DBP: diastolic blood pressure; GFR, glomerular filtration rate; FPG, fasting plasma glucose; HDL-C, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL-C, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; SUA, serum uric acid; TG, triglycerides; WC, waist circumference, SD, standard deviation; CKD, chronic kidney disease.

*Serum uric acid-related conditions: (1) Normouricemic group (the reference group), (2) Untreated hyperuricemia: untreated hyperuricemic group, (3) Treated hyperuricemia: non-CKD patients with therapy for hyperuricemia or gout and (4) CKD: chronic kidney disease.

^†P value < 0.05, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare means between four serum uric acid-related conditions.

^‡Estimated glomerular filtration rate calculated from serum creatinine by the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease (MDRD) formula:

^§Data were expressed as mean (SD) or median [interquartile range].

Table II.  Demographic, clinical and dietary characteristics of 752 elderly men, stratified by serum uric acid-related conditions in Elderly NAHSIT, Taiwan, 1999–2000.

Risk factors	Serum uric acid-related conditions*				P value for Chi-square test	P value for trend test
	Normouricemic group (N = 329)	Untreated hyperuricemia (N = 228)	Treated hyperuricemia (N = 44)	CKD group (N = 151)
BMI, ≥25 kg/m^2	74 (22.8)	87 (38.2)	19 (44.2)	50 (33.3)	0.0002	0.0065
Education, >6 years	110 (33.4)	63 (27.6)	15 (34.1)	54 (35.8)	0.3394	0.6063
Drug use of hypertension	67 (20.4)	55 (24.1)	21 (47.7)	65 (43.3)	<0.0001	<0.0001
Poultry or meat with skin or fat					0.0416	0.6319
Usually/often/seldom/without/never	188 (57.3)	139 (61.0)	28 (63.6)	84 (56.4)
Always in poultry	25 (7.6)	15 (6.6)	7 (15.9)	6 (4.0)
Always in meat	19 (5.8)	4 (1.8)	2 (4.6)	6 (4.0)
Always both in poultry and meat	96 (29.3)	70 (30.7)	7 (15.9)	53 (35.6)
Viscera, ≥1 time/mo	94 (28.7)	59 (26.0)	11 (25.0)	43 (28.7)	0.8706	0.9188
Fish, ≥7 times/wk	173 (52.6)	120 (52.9)	22 (50.0)	78 (52.0)	0.9873	0.8544
Shellfish, ≥1 time/wk	110 (33.7)	96 (42.3)	20 (45.5)	69 (45.7)	0.0394	0.0086
Crustacean, ≥1 time/mo	171 (52.0)	129 (57.1)	21 (47.7)	73 (48.3)	0.3361	0.4076
Egg, ≥3 times/wk	219 (66.8)	144 (63.4)	26 (59.1)	111 (73.5)	0.1456	0.2486
Soy products, ≥4 times/wk	193 (59.2)	119 (52.9)	15 (34.1)	70 (46.7)	0.0033	0.0022
Reduced-fat milk, ≥7 times/wk	87 (26.5)	49 (21.6)	15 (34.1)	36 (24.0)	0.2793	0.7673
Low-fat milk, ≥7 times/wk	35 (10.7)	23 (10.1)	2 (4.6)	21 (13.9)	0.3325	0.4670
Milk, ≥7 times/wk	46 (14.0)	30 (13.2)	4 (9.1)	16 (10.7)	0.6531	0.2478
Fried food, ≥1 time/wk	92 (28.1)	50 (21.9)	16 (36.4)	36 (23.8)	0.1379	0.5272
Fermented food, ≥2 times/wk	111 (33.8)	82 (36.0)	11 (25.0)	52 (34.4)	0.5741	0.8854
Preserved vegetables, ≥4 times/wk	131 (39.9)	87 (38.3)	10 (22.7)	52 (34.4)	0.1327	0.1166
Vegetables, ≥14 times/wk	249 (75.7)	117 (78.0)	31 (70.5)	121 (80.7)	0.4488	0.3431
Mushrooms, ≥1 time/mo	221 (67.8)	156 (69.0)	30 (68.2)	96 (63.6)	0.7269	0.3945
Sugar, ≥4 times/wk	85 (26.1)	62 (27.2)	15 (34.1)	36 (23.8)	0.5854	0.8113
Sugar drink, ≥4 times/wk	36 (11.0)	29 (12.8)	4 (9.1)	18 (12.0)	0.8746	0.8490
Snacks, ≥4 times/wk	36 (11.0)	25 (11.0)	4 (9.1)	9 (6.0)	0.3456	0.0940
Juice, ≥4 times/wk	27 (8.2)	22 (9.7)	8 (18.1)	9 (6.0)	0.0831	0.7930
Tea, ≥14 times/wk	38 (11.6)	30 (13.3)	4 (9.1)	29 (19.3)	0.1049	0.0405
Coffee, ≥1 time/mo	30 (9.1)	22 (9.7)	3 (6.8)	8 (5.3)	0.4420	0.1567
Alcohol intake status					0.1212	0.0490
Non drinker	177 (53.9)	124 (54.6)	20 (45.4)	94 (62.3)
Former drinker	35 (10.7)	27 (11.9)	9 (20.5)	21 (13.9)
Current drinker	116 (35.4)	76 (33.5)	15 (34.1)	36 (23.8)
Alcohol, ≥60 g/wk	26 (8.0)	23 (10.1)	3 (6.8)	3 (2.0)	0.0294	0.0259
Current smoker	141 (42.9)	81 (35.7)	18 (40.9)	58 (38.4)	0.3867	0.3689
Betel-nut chewer	30 (9.2)	24 (10.6)	6 (13.6)	16 (10.7)	0.8003	0.4983

*Serum uric acid-related conditions: (1) Normouricemic group (the reference group), (2) Untreated hyperuricemia: untreated hyperuricemic group, (3) Treated hyperuricemia: non-CKD patients with therapy for hyperuricemia or gout and (4) CKD: chronic kidney disease.

Table III.  Risk factors associated with serum uric acid-related conditions among 752 elderly men in Elderly NAHSIT, Taiwan, 1999–2000.

Risk factors*^,†	Serum uric acid-related conditions^‡
	Normouricemic group^¶ (N = 329)	Untreated hyperuricemia (N = 228)	Treated hyperuricemia (N = 44)	CKD group (N = 151)	P value^§
Age (yrs)	1.00	0.97 (0.93, 1.01)	1.00 (0.92, 1.08)	1.09 (1.04, 1.14)	<0.0001
BMI, ≥25 kg/m^2	1.00	1.38 (1.13, 1.69)	1.52 (1.05, 2.21)	1.25 (0.98, 1.60)	0.0070
Education, >6 yrs	1.00	0.88 (0.71, 1.09)	0.95 (0.63, 1.44)	1.12 (0.88, 1.44)	0.3259
Drug use of hypertension	1.00	1.06 (0.85, 1.33)	2.10 (1.43, 3.07)	1.81 (1.42, 2.31)	<.0001
Poultry or meat intake with skin or fat**					0.0121
Always in poultry vs. rf.	1.00	0.99 (0.55, 1.80)	2.92 (1.17, 7.32)	0.50 (0.21, 1.16)
Always in meat vs. rf.	1.00	0.56 (0.23, 1.35)	0.55 (0.14, 2.17)	0.70 (0.25, 1.98)
Always both in poultry and meat vs. rf.	1.00	1.27 (0.83, 1.94)	0.48 (0.21, 1.11)	2.00 (1.19, 3.36)
Viscera, ≥1 time/mo	1.00	0.82 (0.65, 1.02)	1.06 (0.70, 1.63)	1.19 (0.91, 1.54)	0.0694
Fish, ≥7 times/wk	1.00	0.94 (0.77, 1.14)	0.87 (0.60, 1.25)	0.93 (0.74, 1.17)	0.8133
Shellfishes, ≥1 time/wk	1.00	1.27 (1.03, 1.56)	1.70 (1.14, 2.54)	1.59 (1.23, 2.05)	0.0008
Crustaceans, ≥1 time/mo	1.00	1.07 (0.87, 1.31)	0.73 (0.49, 1.09)	0.90 (0.71, 1.16)	0.2496
Eggs, ≥3 times/wk	1.00	0.90 (0.74, 1.10)	0.78 (0.54, 1.13)	1.29 (1.00, 1.66)	0.0278
Soy products, ≥4 times/wk	1.00	0.92 (0.76, 1.11)	0.53 (0.36, 0.79)	0.77 (0.61, 0.97)	0.0051
Reduced-fat milk, ≥7 times/wk	1.00	0.79 (0.63, 1.00)	1.06 (0.70, 1.61)	0.81 (0.61, 1.06)	0.1481
Low-fat milk, ≥7 times/wk	1.00	0.87 (0.63, 1.19)	0.56 (0.25, 1.24)	1.11 (0.78, 1.57)	0.2857
Milk, ≥7 times/wk	1.00	0.94 (0.72, 1.24)	0.76 (0.42, 1.41)	0.85 (0.60, 1.20)	0.7079
Fried food, ≥1 time/wk	1.00	0.79 (0.63, 0.99)	1.56 (1.06, 2.32)	0.83 (0.64, 1.09)	0.0042
Fermented food, ≥2 times/wk	1.00	1.07 (0.87, 1.31)	0.88 (0.57, 1.35)	1.05 (0.81, 1.35)	0.8132
Preserved vegetables, ≥4 times/wk	1.00	0.94 (0.77, 1.15)	0.60 (0.38, 0.93)	0.86 (0.67, 1.10)	0.1157
Vegetables, ≥14 times/wk	1.00	1.06 (0.85, 1.34)	0.88 (0.59, 1.33)	1.21 (0.91, 1.60)	0.4744
Mushrooms, ≥1 time/mo	1.00	0.96 (0.77, 1.20)	1.06 (0.69, 1.62)	0.89 (0.69, 1.16)	0.8193
Sugar, ≥4 times/wk	1.00	1.05 (0.83, 1.33)	1.53 (1.00, 2.35)	1.06 (0.80, 1.41)	0.2718
Sugar drink, ≥4 times/wk	1.00	1.07 (0.79, 1.45)	0.73 (0.38, 1.39)	1.12 (0.78, 1.61)	0.6254
Snacks, ≥4 times/wk	1.00	1.00 (0.72, 1.37)	0.89 (0.47, 1.68)	0.64 (0.41, 0.98)	0.2055
Juice, ≥4 times/wk	1.00	1.19 (0.86, 1.65)	2.55 (1.50, 4.33)	0.98 (0.63, 1.52)	0.0041
Tea, ≥14 times/wk	1.00	1.12 (0.84, 1.48)	0.60 (0.31, 1.16)	1.25 (0.91, 1.71)	0.1418
Coffee, ≥1 time/mo	1.00	1.03 (0.75, 1.43)	0.66 (0.33, 1.31)	0.69 (0.43, 1.09)	0.2434
Alcohol, ≥60 g/wk	1.00	1.22 (0.88, 1.71)	1.08 (0.53, 2.17)	0.44 (0.21, 0.94)	0.0672
Current smoker (Yes vs. No)	1.00	0.81 (0.67, 0.99)	1.09 (0.73, 1.61)	0.90 (0.71, 1.14)	0.1892
Betel-nut chewer (Yes vs. No)	1.00	1.16 (0.84, 1.61)	1.47 (0.82, 2.64)	1.29 (0.89, 1.88)	0.4004

*Soy products: soymilk, tofu, sweet bean soup; semi-fatty meat: streaky pork, ground meat, pork trotters, semi-fatty beef.

^†Fermented food: salty black bean, soybean paste; preserved vegetables: pickled cabbage, preserved bean curd, pickled mustard, chili radish.

^‡Serum uric acid-related conditions: (1) Normouricemic group (the reference group), (2) Untreated hyperuricemia: untreated hyperuricemic group, (3) Treated hyperuricemia: non-CKD patients with therapy for hyperuricemia or gout and (4) CKD: chronic kidney disease.

^§P values represent the comparison of odd ratios between four serum uric acid-related conditions by using polychotomous logit model analysis.

^¶Odd ratio for normouricemic group (reference group) was set to be 1.

**rf.: Reference level was participants ‘usually/often/ seldom/without/never’ have poultry or meat intake with skin or fat.

^††Data were expressed as odd ratios (95% confidence intervals) for risk factors associated with untreated hyperuricemia, treated hyperuricemia and CKD group.