Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used in the management of diabetes mellitus and hypertension in the Central Region of Togo

Figures & data

Figure 1.  The maps of Togo and Central Region showing the study area.

Table 1.  The socio-professional data of the THs curing diabetes and/or HTN in the Central Region of Togo.

Sex	Males	Females
Respondents (%)	85.71	14.29
Ages groups (years)	20–30	31–40	41–50	≥ 51
Respondents (%)	8.57	11.43	34.29	45.71
Educational level	Illiterates	Primary	Secondary	University
Respondents (%)	37.14	37.14	22.86	2.86
Origin of the knowledge	Familial heritage exclusively	Divine revelation exclusively	Initiation from a TH exclusively	Other
Respondents (%)	71.43	17.15	5.71	5.71
Status of the TH	Full-time TH professional	Partial TH professional
Respondents (%)	97.14	2.86
Speciality	DM exclusively	HTN exclusively	DM + HTN
Respondents (%)	25.71	40.00	34.29
Basis of diagnostic	Only rely only on symptoms	Only rely on laboratory results	Confirm diagnostic by laboratory results
Respondents (%)	26.32	10.53	63.15
Season of harvest	Dry season (exclusively)	Any season (dry or rainy season)
Respondents (%)	22.86	77.14
Moment harvest	Morning (exclusively)	Sunset (exclusively)	Morning or sunset	Any moment
Respondents (%)	11.43	2.86	40.00	45.71

Table 2.  The recorded symptoms of DM and HTN in the Central Region of Togo.

DM		HTN
Symptoms	Respondents (%)	Symptoms	Respondents (%)
Polyuria	28.60	Asthenia	37.14
Viscous or foamy urine	28.60	Paralysis	34.30
Recurrent wounds	22.90	Giddiness	28.60
Oedemas	20.00	Palpitations	28.60
Asthenia	17.10	Loss of speech	17.10
Sweet urines (attraction of ants)	11.40	Difficulty in breathing	14.30
Weight loss	8.60	Headache	11.40
Nauseous urines	5.70	Weight gain	8.60
Fever	5.70	Fever	8.60
Headache	5.70	Tremor	5.70
Difficulty in breathing	5.70	Insomnia	5.70
Polydipsia	5.70	Vomiting (fat-rich after meal)	5.70
Giddiness	2.90	Anger	5.70
Sexual weakness	2.90	Excessive sweating	2.90
Painful urination	2.90	Ringing ears	2.90
Darkening blood	2.90	Itching	2.90
Vomiting (after taking medication)	2.90	Abdominal pains	2.90
Jaundice	2.90	Sudden accidents	2.90
Internal ulceration	2.90	Alternating weight loss/weight gain	2.90

Table 3.  Medicinal plants used in the management of diabetes and/or HTN in the Central Region of Togo.

Families	Species	Voucher specimen number	Vernacular names	Ailments	UVs		Previous citations
					Diabetes	HTN
Anacardiaceae	Anacardium occidentale L.	4692FDS/UL	Atchan	DM/HTN	0.05	0.04	Ojewole, 2003
Annonaceae	Annona muricata L.	02267Tg Clt/AK	Sabissab	DM	0.14	-	Lans, 2006
	Annona senegalensis Pers.	2179FDS/UL	Tchoutchoudè	DM/HTN	0.10	0.04	-
	Xylopia aethiopica A. Rich.	01984TG Clt/AK	Souzi	DM	0.05	-	-
Apocynaceae	Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don.	10800	Kilakou-sindâzi	DM/HTN	0.05	0.04	Lans, 2006
	Picralima nitida Th. & H.Dur.	220FDS/UL	Ambéri	DM/HTN	0.05	0.04	-
Arecaceae	Cocos nucifera L.	02481TG Clt/AK	Kpakpadirè	HTN	-	0.04	Lans, 2006
	Raphia hookeri G. Mann & H. Wendl.	2179FDS/UL	Bambou	HTN	-	0.04	-
Aristolochiaceae	Aristolochia albida Duch.	02006TG	Agadayo	DM	0.10	-	-
		Clt/AK
Asteraceae	Vernonia amygdalina Del.	10700FDS/UL	Souwaka	HTN	-	0.04	Akah and Okafor, 1992; Gbolade 2009; Oni, 2010; Jiofack et al., 2010
Celastraceae	Maytenus senegalensis (Lam.) Exell.	3738 FDS/UL	Tchindjinya	DM	0.05	-	-
Combretaceae	Combretum molle R.Br. ex G. Don	10554 FDS/UL	Kizizikou	HTN	-	0.04	Ojewole, 2008
	Pteleopsis suberosa Engl. & Diels	8078 FDS/UL	Sissinon	DM	0.05	-	-
	Terminalia glaucescens Planch. ex Benth.	8915 FDS/UL	Souwadâou	DM	0.05	-	-
Cucurbitaceae	Momordica charantia L.	6182 FDS/UL	Katchalayo	DM/HTN	0.05	0.04	Razza et al., 1996; Lans, 2006; Gbolade, 2009
Dipterocarpaceae	Monotes kerstingii Gilg.	1227 FDS/UL	Sèrè	DM	0.05	-	-
Ebenaceae	Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A.DC.	2028 FDS/UL	Tigbado	HTN	-	0.04	-
Euphorbiaceae	Ricinus communis L.	351 FDS/UL	Dèdèlè	HTN	-	0.04	-
Fabaceae	Afzelia africana Sm.	10801	Welou	HTN	-	0.04	-
	Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn.	299 FDS/UL	Bouvoum	DM	0.05	-	-
	Lonchocarpus cyanescens Benth.	4409 FDS/UL	Tchèlè	DM	0.05	-	-
	Millettia thonningii Baker	10822	kodoliya	HTN	-	0.04	-
	Prosopis africana Taub.	848 FDS/UL	Kpalou	DM	0.05	-	-
	Parkia biglobosa Benth.	9468 FDS/UL	Soulou	DM/HTN	0.10	0.19	Besançon et al., 2005; Abo et al., 2008
	Pericopsis laxiflora (Benth. ex Baker) Meeuwen	2324 FDS/UL	Tchamani	HTN	-	0.08	-
	Phaseolus vulgaris L.		Sona	DM	0.05	-	-
	Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach.) Milne-Redh.	0469 FDS/UL	Bakou	DM/HTN	0.10	0.08	-
	Pterocarpus erinaceus Poir.	15 FDS/UL	Tem	DM	0.10	-	-
	Xeroderris stuhlmannii (Taub.) Mendonça & E. P. Sousa	10571 FDS/UL	Tchalawâri	DM/HTN	0.05	0.04	-
Lamiaceae	Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit.	04184TG Clt/AK	Botifadini	HTN	-	0.04	-
	Ocimum americanum L.	04199TG Clt/AK	Kozossonya	HTN	-	0.04	-
	Ocimum gratissimum L.	3892 FDS/UL	Kounozorou	DM	0.05	-	Aguiyi et al., 2000; Egsie et al., 2006; Gbolade, 2009
Lauraceae	Persea americana Mill.	10844	Paya	HTN	-	0.11	Lans, 2006; Agbonon et al., 2010
Liliaceae	Allium cepa L.	10855	Albassa	HTN	-	0.04	Eddouks et al., 2002; Tahraoui et al., 2007; Gbolade, 2009
	Allium sativum L.	10856	Ayo	DM/HTN	0.05	0.38	Ziyyat etal., 1997; Eddouks et al., 2002; Gbolade, 2009
	Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f.	10857	Fradjo	DM	0.05	-	Eddouks et al., 2002; Ahmad et al., 2007; Jouad et al., 2001; Haddad et al., 2003; Kareru et al., 2007
Loganiaceae	Anthocleista djalonensis A. Chev.	2326 FDS/UL	Assoubo-bissaou	DM	0.10	-	Gbolade, 2009
	Strychnos spinosa Lam.	10779 FDS/UL	Kpengbelé	DM	0.05	-	-
Meliaceae	Pseudocedrela kotschyi Harms	7719 FDS/UL	Ditotoré	DM/HTN	0.05	0.08	-
	Khaya senegalensis A. Juss.	10641 FDS/UL bis	Frimou	DM/HTN	0.14	0.11	-
	Trichilia emetica Vahl	308 FDS/UL	Adjendjegbizou	DM	0.10	-	-
Moringaceae	Moringa oleifera Lam.	05250TG Clt/AK	Séguéléguédi	DM	0.05	-	Nadembega et al., 2010
Myrtaceae	Psidium guajava L.	10866	Goyaba	DM	0.14	-	Amusan et al., 2007
Opiliaceae	Opilia amentacea Roxb.	05522 FDS/UL	Domfadou	DM/HTN	0.05	0.04	-
Phyllanthaceae	Securinega virosa (Willd.) Baill.	008 FDS/UL	Tchakatchaka	DM/HTN	0.05	0.04	-
	Bridelia ferruginea Benth.	7382 FDS/UL	Kolou	DM	0.14	-	-
	Phyllanthus amarus Schumach.	571 FDS/UL	Sèni-sèniyo	DM/HTN	0.05	0.08	Ali al., 2006; Abo et al., 2008; Agbonon et al., 2010
Poaceae	Cymbopogon citratus Stapf.	10749TG Clt/AK	Tigbé	DM	0.05	-	-
Polygalaceae	Securidaca longepedunculata Fresen.	9491 FDS/UL	Fozi	DM/HTN	0.14	0.04	Gbolade, 2009
Rubiaceae	Gardenia ternifolia Schumach.	27 FDS/UL	Kawou	HTN	-	0.11	-
	Morinda lucida Benth.	07498Tg Clt/AK	Zanklan (Ewé)	HTN		0.04	Adjanohoun et al., 1986; Kamanyi et al., 1994; Abo et al., 2008; Gbolade, 2009; Agbonon et al., 2010
	Sarcocephalus latifolius (Sm.) E.A. Bruce	07535TG Clt/AK	Kidjitchilou	DM/HTN	0.14	0.08	Nworgu et al., 2008: Gidado et al., 2008
	Coffea sp	10877	Coffi	DM	0.05	-	-
Rutaceae	Citrus aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle	02480TG Clt/AK	Akanka	HTN	-	0.08	Abo et al., 2008; Gbolade, 2009
Sapotaceae	Vitellaria paradoxa C. F. Gaertn.	9443 FDS/UL	Somou	DM/HTN	0.05	0.08	-
Solanaceae	Nicotiana tabacum L.	278 FDS/UL	Assara	HTN	-	0.04	Gbolade, 2009
	Schwenckia americana L.	3355 FDS/UL	Kotoka	HTN	-	0.04	-
	Lycopersicum esculentum L.	10888	Timati	HTN	-	0.08	-
Sterculiaceae	Cola nitida Schott & Endl.	0376 FDS/UL	Goro	DM	0.05		Lans, 2006
	Theobroma cacao L.	0422 FDS/UL	Coco	DM/HTN	0.10	0.04	-
Taccaceae	Tacca leontopetaloides (L.) Oktze	10899	Nanitiwou	DM	0.10	-	-
Verbenaceae	Gmelina arborea Roxb.	10833	Ansara-tantouna	HTN	-	0.04	-
	Stachytarpheta angustifolia (Mill.) Vahl	820 FDS/UL	Tchoumboulouzou	HTN	-	0.04	-
	Lippia multiflora Moldenke	09207TG Clt/AK	Boufazaou	HTN	-	0.08	-

Table 4.  The antidiabetic recipes of the Tem THs.

Recipes		Plants	Used parts	Mode of preparation	Route of administration
Unique plant recipes	Antd-1	Aloe vera	Leaves	Juice	Oral
	Antd-2	Phaseolus vulgaris	Fruits	Powder	Oral
	Antd-3	Pterocarpus erinaceus	Roots, stem bark	Decoction	Oral
	Antd-4	Anacardium occidentale	Stem bark	Powder	Oral
	Antd-5	Bridelia ferruginea	Stem bark	Powder	Oral
	Antd-6	Catharanthus roseus	Leaves	Decoction	Oral
	Antd-7	Annona muricata	Leaves	Decoction	Oral
	Antd-8	Picralima nitida	Seeds	Powder	Oral
Recipes made of two plants	Antd-9	Pterocarpus erinaceus	Stem bark	Decoction	Oral
		Bridelia ferruginea	Roots
	Antd-10	Khaya senegalensis	Stem bark	Powder	Oral
		Parkia biglobosa	Stem bark
	Antd-11	Tacca leontopetaloides	Bulb	Powder	Oral
		Strychnos spinosa	Roots
	Antd-12	Monotes kerstingii	Stem bark	Powder	Oral
		Pseudocedrela kotschyi	Roots
	Antd-13	Aristolochia albida	Roots et leaves	Decoction	Oral
		Xeroderris stuhlmannii	Roots et leaves
	Antd-14	Khaya senegalensis	Stem bark	Decoction	Oral
		Allium sativum	Bulb
	Antd-15	Tacca leontopetaloides	Bulb	Decoction	Oral
		Cymbopogon citratus	Leaves
	Antd-16	Securidaca longepedunculata	Roots	Decoction	Body bath
		Sarcocephalus latifolius	Roots
	Antd-17	Bridelia ferruginea	Stem bark	Decoction	Oral
		Anthocleista djalonensis	Roots
	Antd-18	Phyllanthus amarus	Whole plant	Decoction	Oral
		Theobroma cacao	Leaves
	Antd-19	Psidium guajava	Leaves	Decoction	Oral
		Cola nitida	Leaves
Recipes made of three plants	Antd-20	Khaya senegalensis	Roots	Decoction	Oral and body bath
		Sarcocephalus latifolius	Roots
		Pteleopsis suberosa	Roots
	Antd-21	Annona senegalensis	Roots	Powder	Oral
		Lonchocarpus cyanescens	Stem bark
		Phyllanthus amarus	Whole plant
	Antd-22	Theobroma cacao	Leaves	Decoction	Oral
		Coffea sp	Leaves
		Xylopia aethiopica	Fruits
	Antd-23	Psidium guajava	Leaves	Decoction	Oral
		Annona muricata	Leaves
		Stachytarpheta angustifolia	Leaves
	Antd-24	Sarcocephalus latifolius	Roots	Decoction	Oral
		Anthocleista djalonensis	Roots
		Trichilia emetica	Roots
	Antd-25	Piliostigma thonningii	Stem bark	Decoction	Oral
		Momordica charantia	Whole plant
		Annona senegalensis	Roots
Recipes made of four plants	Antd-26	Psidium guajava	Leaves	Decoction	Oral
		Annona muricata	Leaves
		Moringa oleifera	Leaves
		Piliostigma thonningii	Leaves
	Antd-27	Xylopia aethiopica	Fruits	Powder	Poultices
		Securidaca longepedunculata	Roots bark
		Sarcocephalus latifolius	Roots bark
		Opilia Amentacea	Roots bark
Recipes made of five plants	Antd-28	Parkia biglobosa	Stem bark	Decoction	Oral
		Aristolochia albida	Roots
		Ocimum gratissimum	Whole plant
		Trichilia emetica	Roots
		Securidaca longepedunculata	Roots
Recipes made of eight plants	Antd-29	Securinega virosa	Roots	Decoction	Oral
		Prosopis africana	Roots
		Vitellaria paradoxa	Roots
		Parkia biglobosa	Roots
		Maytenus senegalensis	Roots
		Terminalia glaucescens	Roots
		Securidaca longepedunculata	Roots
		Dichrostachys cinerea	Roots

Table 5.  The antihypertensive recipes of the Tem THs.

Recipes		Plants	Used parts	Mode of preparation	Route of administration dosage
Unique plant recipes	Anthyp-1	Allium sativum	Bulb	Crushed maceration + honey	Oral
	Anthyp-2	Anacardium occidentale	Stem bark	Powder	Oral
	Anthyp-3	Lycopersicum esculentum	Leaves	Maceration	Oral
	Anthyp-4	Morinda lucida	Roots	Decoction	Oral and body bath
	Anthyp-5	Ocimum americanum	Stem and leaves	Decoction	Oral
	Anthyp-6	Gardenia ternifolia	Leaves	Decoction	Oral
	Anthyp-7	Parkia bigloboa	Seeds	Powder	Oral
	Anthyp-8	Phyllanthus amarus	Whole plant	Decoction	Oral
	Anthyp-9	Vernonia amygdalina	Leaves	Maceration	Oral
	Anthyp-10	Opilia amentacea	Leaves	Decoction	Oral and body bath
			Woods	Powder
	Anthyp-11	Catharanthus roseus	Roots	Decoction	Oral
	Anthyp-12	Ricinus communis	Leaves	Powder	Oral
	Anthyp-13	Citrus aurantifolia	Fruits	Juice	Oral
	Anthyp-14	Raphia hookeri	Whole plant	Wine	Oral
Recipes made of two plants	Anthyp-15	Persea americana	Leaves	Decoction	Oral
		Theobroma cacao	Leaves
	Anthyp-16	Hyptis suaveolens	Whole plant	Decoction	Oral
		Khaya senegalensis	Stem bark
	Anthyp-17	Cocos nucifera	Fruits	Maceration	Oral
		Nicotiana tabacum	Leaves
	Anthyp-18	Gardenia ternifolia	Leaves	Powder	Oral
		Piliostigma Thonningii	Leaves
	Anthyp-19	Sarcocephalus latifolius	Roots	Decoction	Oral
		Picralima nitida	Seeds
	Anthyp-20	Parkia biglobosa	Stem bark	Maceration	Oral
		Allium sativum	Bulb
	Anthyp-21	Vitellaria paradoxa	Stem bark	Decoction	Oral
		Millettia thonningii	Roots
	Anthyp-22	Schwenckia Americana	Roots	Powder	Oral
			Roots
		Diospyros mespiliformis	Leaves	Maceration	Body bath
			Leaves
	Anthyp-23	Persea americana	Leaves	Decoction	Oral
		Theobroma cacao	Leaves
	Anthyp-24	Hyptis suaveolens	Whole plant	Decoction	Oral
		Khaya senegalensis	Stem bark
	Anthyp-25	Cocos nucifera	Fruits	Maceration	Oral
		Nicotiana tabacum	Leaves
	Anthyp-26	Gardenia ternifolia	Leaves	Powder	Oral
		Piliostigma thonningii	Leaves
	Anthyp-27	Sarcocephalus latifolius	Roots	Decoction	Oral
		Picralima nitida	Seeds
	Anthyp-28	Parkia biglobosa	Stem bark	Maceration	Oral
		Allium sativum	Bulb
	Anthyp-29	Vitellaria paradoxa	Stem bark	Decoction	Oral
		Millettia thonningii	Roots
	Anthyp-30	Schwenckia americana	Roots	Powder	Oral
		Diospyros mespiliformis	Roots
			Leaves	Maceration	Body bath
			Leaves
Recipes made of three plants	Anthyp-31	Piliostigma thonningii	Stem bark	Decoction	Oral
		Momordica charantia	Whole plant
		Annona senegalensis	Roots
	Anthyp-32	Pseudocedrela kotschyi	Roots	Decoction	Oral
		Securinega virosa	Leaves
		Combretum molle	Leaves
Recipes made of four plants	Anthyp-33	Lippia multiflora	Leaves	Powder	Oral
		Stachytarpheta angustifolia	Leaves
		Allium sativum	Bulb
		Persea americana	Fruit
	Anthyp-34	Khaya senegalensis	Roots + leaves	Decoction	Oral
		Parkia biglobosa	Stem bark
		Pericopsis laxiflora	Roots + leaves
		Gmelina arborea	Leaves
	Anthyp-35	Khaya senegalensis	Stem bark	Powder	Oral
		Sarcocephalus latifolius	Roots
		Pseudocedrela kotschyi	Roots
		Securidaca longepedunculata	Roots

Figure 2.  The plant portions used in the concoctions of antidiabetic and/or antihypertensive recipes in the Tem TM. Rt, roots; Lv, leaves; Sb, stem bark; Wp, whole plant; Fr, fruits; Bu, bulb; Se, seeds; St, stem; Wo, woods.

Figure 3.  The formulations of remedies used in the management of diabetes and/or HTM in the Tem TM. Win, wine; FCr, fresh crush; Jui, juice; Mac, maceration; Pow, powder; Dec, decoction.

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