The genus Warburgia: A review of its traditional uses and pharmacology

Figures & data

Table 1. Vernacular names of Warburgia species.

Vernacular name(s), language or geographical region in brackets	Country	Reference(s)
Warburgia elongata
Mkaa, msokonoi (Swahili)	Tanzania	Lovett et al., 2006
Warburgia salutaris
Chibaha (Changana, Tsonga); Xibaha (Tsonga)	Mozambique	Krog et al., 2006; Verdcourt, 1990
Pepperbark tree (English); muranga, muranga-zvose, murapa kamwe (Shona)	Zimbabwe	Gelfand et al., 1985; Mukamuri & Kozanayi, 1999
Koorsboom, peperbasboom (Afrikaans); fever tree, pepperbark tree (English); molaka (Sotho); shibaha, xibaha (Tsonga); ishibaha, isibaha, manaka, mulanga (Venda); Amazwecehlabayo, isibaha, isibhaha (Zulu)	South Africa	Botha et al., 2004; Bryant, 1966; Felhaber & Mayeng, 1997; Gerstner, 1939; Gordon, 1953; Hollmann & Van der Schijff, 1996; Hutchings et al., 1996; Mabogo, 1990; Rabe & van Staden, 2000; Scott-Shaw et al., 1998; Van Wyk & Gericke, 2000; Van Wyk et al., 2009
siBhaha (Siswati)	Swaziland	Hutchings et al., 1996
Warburgia stuhlmannii
Mkaa (Swahili)	Kenya	Muthaura et al., 2007a,b; Verdcourt, 1954
Wood pepper (English); mkarambate (Kisigua); Mkaa, msokonoi (Swahili)	Tanzania	Lovett et al., 2006; Verdcourt, 1954
Warburgia ugandensis ssp. longifolia
Mka’nga (Kizaramo); mkaa, msokonoi (Swahili)	Tanzania	Kayombo et al., 2007; Kokwaro, 2009; Lovett et al., 2006; Verdcourt, 1954
Warburgia ugandensis ssp. ugandensis
Zogdom (Amharic)	Ethiopia	Wube et al., 2005
East African greenheart, East African green wood, green heart, Kenya greenheart, pepperbark tree (English); Miziga, museka, mutheka, muthiga, muziga (Kikuyu); O-soghonoi (Kimasai); Moissot, soget (Kipsigis); Apacha (Luhya); Abaki, sogo-maitha (Luo); Ol-sogunoi (Maasai); Sokoriori (Samburu district); Soke, soket (Tugen)	Kenya	Kiringe, 2006; Kokwaro, 2009; Nanyingi et al., 2008; Ngure et al., 2009; Verdcourt, 1954; Wamalwa et al., 2006
Muhiya (Haya); Mhangana (Hehe), Mlifu (Kishamb); Sakwenamo (Iraqw); Olmsogoni, ol-osogoni, Olsokonoi (Maasai); Msokonoi (Rangi), Mlifu (Shambaa); Mkaa (Swahili); Muhiya (Ziba)	Tanzania	Kayombo et al., 2007; Kokwaro, 2009; Lovett et al., 2006
Abwach (Karamojong); Mukuzanume, musoko, muwiya (Luganda)	Uganda	Kokwaro, 2009; Kuglerova et al., 2011; Olila, 1993

Table 2. Medicinal uses of Warburgia species.

Ailment/use	Plant part	Mode of use	Country	References^#
Warburgia elongata
Constipation	Bark	Bark chewed and juice swallowed	Tanzania	10
Fever	Bark	Bark chewed and juice swallowed	Tanzania	10
General body pains	Bark	Bark chewed and juice swallowed	Tanzania	10
Hernia	Bark	Bark chewed and juice swallowed	Tanzania	10
Joint and muscle pains	Bark	Bark chewed and juice swallowed	Tanzania	10
Stomachache	Bark	Bark chewed and juice swallowed	Tanzania	10
Toothache	Bark	Bark chewed and juice swallowed	Tanzania	10
Warburgia salutaris
Abdominal pains	Bark	Powdered bark used as infusion or decoction	South Africa; Zimbabwe	3, 22
Abortion	Bark	Bark decoction	Zimbabwe	3, 14
Aid to divination	Bark	Bark boiled and chewed	Zimbabwe	3
Aphrodisiac	Bark	Bark decoction	South Africa; Zimbabwe	3, 5, 11, 14, 22
Backache	Bark	Bark decoction	Zimbabwe; South Africa	5, 11, 14
Blood disorders	Bark	Bark decoction	South Africa	5
Cancer	Bark	Powdered bark used as infusion or decoction	South Africa	22
Charm	Bark	Bark decoction	Zimbabwe	14
Chest complaints	Bark	Powdered bark used as infusion or decoction	South Africa	5, 11, 22
Colds	Bark; root	Powdered bark used as infusion or decoction; bark and root smoked	South Africa	5, 11, 20, 22, 25
Constipation	Bark	Powdered bark used as infusion or decoction	South Africa	2, 22
Cough	Bark; root	Powdered bark or root used as infusion or decoction. Stem of W. salutaris smoked mixed with Cannabis sativa L.	South Africa	5, 21, 22, 25
Diabetes	Bark	Not specified	South Africa	1
Diarrhoea	Bark	Bark decoction	Zimbabwe	14
Emetic	Bark	Bark decoction	South Africa	4
Expectorant	Bark; root	Powdered bark used as infusion or decoction	South Africa	22, 25
Febrile complaints	Bark	Bark decoction	South Africa	6
Fever	Bark	Powdered bark used as infusion or decoction	South Africa; Zimbabwe	14, 22
Flu	Bark	Powdered bark used as infusion or decoction	South Africa	22
Headache	Bark	Bark powder applied on incision; powdered bark of W. salutaris and Erythrophleum lasianthum Corbishley taken as snuff	South Africa; Zimbabwe	3, 5, 6, 14, 22
Indigestion	Bark	Bark powder blown into patient’s anus	Zimbabwe	14
Inflammation	Bark; leaves; stalks	Ointments made from pounded leaves and stalks, mixed with bark and any kind of fat applied on affected body part	South Africa	6
Inflammation of urethra	Bark	Ointments made from powdered bark of W. salutaris mixed with leaves of Hibiscus surratensis L. and fat applied on urethra	South Africa	6
Influenza	Bark	Bark decoction	South Africa	20
Irritation	Bark	Ointments made from powdered bark of W. salutaris mixed with leaves of H. surratensis and fat applied on affected body part	South Africa	6
Loss of appetite	Bark	Bark decoction	Zimbabwe	14
Malaria	Bark	Powdered bark used as infusion or decoction	South Africa	5, 12, 22
Nightmares	Bark	Bark decoction	South Africa	5
Penial irritation	Bark	Powdered bark mixed with fat used as ointment	South Africa	6
Pneumonia	Bark; root	Bark decoction	Zimbabwe	14
Purgative	Bark	Bark decoction	South Africa	6, 11
Remedy for all diseases (panacea)	Bark	Bark decoction	Zimbabwe	3, 14
Respiratory complaints	Bark	Bark decoction	South Africa	20
Rheumatism	Bark; leaf	Powdered bark or leaf used as infusion or decoction	South Africa	5, 6, 22
Sinus	Bark	Bark decoction	South Africa	20
Skin complaints	Bark	Not specified	South Africa	11
Skin irritations	Bark; leaf; stalks	Ointments made from pounded leaves and stalks, mixed with bark and any kind of fat applied on affected body part	South Africa	6
Skin sores	Bark; leaf; stalks	Ointments made from pounded leaves and stalks, mixed with bark and any kind of fat applied on affected body part	South Africa	5, 6, 11
Snakebites	Bark	Bark decoction	Zimbabwe	14
Sores	Bark; leaf; stalks	Powdered bark applied to sores; ointments made from pounded leaves and stalks, mixed with bark and any kind of fat applied on affected body part	South Africa	6, 20
Sores on the penis	Bark	Ointments made from powdered bark of W. salutaris mixed with leaves of H. surratensis and fat applied on affected body part	South Africa	6
Sore throat	Bark	Bark decoction	South Africa	5, 11
Stomach pain	Bark	Bark decoction	South Africa	2
Stomach or gastric ulcers	Bark	Powdered bark used as infusion or decoction	South Africa	2, 21, 22
To increase blood in body	Bark	Fungus on bark	Zimbabwe	3
Tonic	Bark	Powdered bark used as infusion or decoction	South Africa	22
Toothache	Bark	Bark decoction	South Africa	5
Venereal diseases	Bark	Powdered bark used as infusion or decoction	South Africa; Zimbabwe	3, 5, 22
Warburgia stuhlmannii
Eradicating intestinal worms	Bark	Not specified	Tanzania	10
Fever	Bark	Not specified	Tanzania	10
General body pains	Bark	Not specified	Tanzania	10
Hernia	Bark	Not specified	Tanzania	10
Malaria	Bark	Hot water decoction	Kenya; Tanzania	10, 15, 16
Stomachache	Bark	Not specified	Tanzania	10
Toothache	Bark	Not specified	Kenya; Tanzania	10, 23
Warburgia ugandensis ssp. longifolia
Colds	Bark	Not specified	Tanzania	10
Constipation	Bark	Not specified	Tanzania	10
Diarrhoea	Bark; roots	Not specified	Tanzania	10
Fatigue	Bark	Not specified	Tanzania	10
Fever	Bark	Not specified	Tanzania	10
General body pains	Bark	Not specified	Tanzania	10
Headache	Bark	Not specified	Tanzania	10
Hernia	Bark	Not specified	Tanzania	10
HIV-related opportunistic infections	Bark; roots	Not specified	Tanzania	13
Intestinal problems	Bark	Not specified	Tanzania	10
Malaria	Bark; leaves; roots	Not specified	Tanzania	10
Stomachache	Bark	Not specified	Tanzania	10
Toothache	Bark	Not specified	Tanzania	10
Warburgia ugandensis ssp. ugandensis
Anaplasmosis*	Bark	Not specified	Uganda	9
Babesiosis*	Bark	Not specified	Uganda	9
Black quarter*	Bark; leaves	Hot decoction of bark or leaves	Kenya	17
Bloat*	Bark	Bark chewed and juice swallowed	Kenya	7
Chest pains	Bark	Bark chewed and juice swallowed or bark mixed with animal fat	Kenya	7, 24
Constipation	Bark	Bark chewed and juice swallowed	Kenya; Tanzania	8
Cough	Bark	Bark chewed and juice swallowed	Kenya; Tanzania	7, 8
Diarrhoea	Bark; roots	Bark chewed and juice swallowed	Kenya; Tanzania	7
Ectoparasites*	Bark; leaves	Hot decoction of bark or leaves	Kenya	17
Emetic	Bark; leaves	Hot decoction of bark or leaves	Kenya	17
Eradicating intestinal worms	Bark	Not specified	Tanzania	10
Fever	Bark	Bark chewed and juice swallowed	Kenya; Tanzania	8, 10
General body pains	Bark	Bark chewed and juice swallowed	Kenya; Tanzania	8, 10
Heart water*	Bark; leaves	Hot decoction of bark or leaves	Kenya	17
Helminthosis	Bark; leaves	Hot decoction of bark or leaves	Kenya	17
HIV-related opportunistic infections	Bark; roots	Not specified	Tanzania	13
Loss of appetite	Bark	Bark chewed and juice swallowed	Kenya	7
Lung problems	Bark	Bark decoction	Kenya	7
Malaria	Bark; leaves; roots	Bark, leaves or roots chewed and juice swallowed	Kenya; Tanzania	4, 7, 8, 10, 24
Measles	Bark	Not specified	Uganda	19
Muscle pains	Bark	Bark chewed and juice swallowed	Kenya; Tanzania	8
Pain killer	Bark	Not specified	Kenya	24
Sexually transmitted diseases	Bark	Bark decoction	Kenya	7
Skin diseases	Bark	Not specified	Kenya	24
Snake bites	Bark	Not specified	Uganda	19
Stomach worms	Bark	Not specified	Kenya	4
Stomachache	Bark	Bark chewed and juice swallowed	Kenya; Tanzania	7, 8, 10
Theleriosis*	Bark; leaves	Hot decoction of bark or leaves	Kenya; Uganda	9, 17
Throat infections	Bark	Bark decoction or bark mixed with animal fat	Kenya	7
Toothache	Bark	Bark chewed and juice swallowed	Kenya; Tanzania	8, 10, 24
Trypanosomiasis*	Bark; leaves	Hot decoction of bark or leaves	Kenya	17
Tuberculosis	Bark	Not specified	Ethiopia	26
Ulcers	Bark	Bark chewed and juice swallowed	Kenya	7
Visceral leishmaniasis	Bark	Bark boiled in water or soup and taken orally	Kenya	18
Weak joints	Bark	Bark chewed and juice swallowed	Kenya; Tanzania	8
Yellow fever	Bark	Not specified	Uganda	9

Veterinary ailments or uses are marked with an asterisk (*).

^#1Deutschländer et al. (2009); ²Felhaber & Mayeng (1997); ³Gelfand et al. (1985); ⁴Henke (1994); ⁵Hollmann & Van der Schijff (1996); ⁶Hutchings et al. (1996); ⁷Kiringe (2006); ⁸Kokwaro (2009); ⁹Kuglerova et al. (2011); ¹⁰Lovett et al. (2006); ¹¹Mabogo (1990); ¹²Mander et al. (1995); ¹³Mbwambo et al. (2009); ¹⁴Mukamuri & Kozanayi (1999); ¹⁵Muthaura et al. (2007a); ¹⁶Muthaura et al. (2007b); ¹⁷Nanyingi et al. (2008); ¹⁸Ngure et al. (2009); ¹⁹Olila (1993); ²⁰Rabe & Van Staden (2000); ²¹Van Wyk et al. (2009); ²²Van Wyk & Gericke (2000); ²³Verdcourt (1954); ²⁴Wamalwa et al. (2006); ²⁵Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk (1962); ²⁶Wube et al. (2005).

Table 3. Major ailment categories and uses reported.

Ailment category	Number of use reports
Cold, cough and sore throat	8
Dermatological	4
Fever	8
Gastro-intestinal system	20
General	7
Hernia	3
Injuries	3
Musculoskeletal system	4
Odontological	5
Respiratory system	6
Sexual dysfunction	4

Ailment categories follow the Economic Botany Data Collection Standard of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (Cook, 1995).

Figure 1. Characteristics of Warburgia herbal medicines in east, central and southern Africa. (A) Plant parts used, and (B) herbal preparations. Other herbal preparations in B include smoking, use of bark fungus, application of bark powder on incision and chewing of bark after it has been boiled.

Figure 2. Drimane, colorotane sesquiterpenoides and other compounds isolated from Wurburgia species.

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