Mindfulness Between the Sheets: Does a Brief Mindfulness Intervention Improve Community-Dwelling Populations’ Sexual Experiences and Motivations, and Are Effects Moderated by Attachment Insecurity?

ABSTRACT

Research is increasingly linking mindfulness with better relationship outcomes. Less clear is whether these benefits extend to the sexual domain or whether the benefits of mindfulness are moderated by individual characteristics. Accordingly, the current report tested whether a brief online mindfulness intervention improved the cognitive, affective, and behavioral aspects of sexual experiences and whether effects varied by attachment anxiety and avoidance. Participants (N = 90) first completed a measure of attachment before reporting their sexual experiences each day for 7-days. Participants then listened to a mindfulness recording every day for 4 weeks. Finally, sexual experiences were reported on every day for 7 days again. Consistent with previous studies, no benefits of the mindfulness intervention were detected for more avoidant persons. Less consistent with expectation, however, the mindfulness intervention did not improve sexual outcomes in general, nor did it buffer other-focused avoidance-based sexual motivations or bolster sexual communal strength among more anxiously attached persons. However, the intervention did increase reports of positive sexuality among more anxious persons. Results are discussed in terms of the differential utility and limits of short mindfulness interventions looking to enhance sexual functioning in different populations and the potential mechanisms behind the presence and absence of effects.

While the benefits mindfulness has for outcomes such as stress, depression, and anxiety have historically been more focal in research, interest is increasingly being paid to how mindfulness may promote interpersonal wellbeing. With some exceptions (i.e., Dixon et al., 2022a, 2022b), the sum of this research suggests that mindfulness may improve relationship functioning (e.g., Dixon and Overall, 2018; Kappen et al., 2019; Quickert & Macdonald, 2020). For example, research suggests that trait mindfulness – the tendency to attend to present moment experiences in a non-judgmental and accepting way (Baer et al., 2006; Bishop et al., 2004) – is positively associated with relationship satisfaction (Quinn-Nilas, 2020; Stanton et al., 2021), attachment security (Stevenson et al., 2017), and relationship growth beliefs (Don, 2020). Higher trait mindfulness has also been shown to increase the likelihood that individuals respond to relationship conflicts in constructive ways (Barnes et al., 2007), and buffer the degree to which the inevitable dips in relationship satisfaction lead to declines in personal wellbeing (Don & Algoe, 2020).

Although these are useful developments in a field that has historically focused on intrapersonal outcomes, there are areas of weakness. First, sexuality, which is a major component in the initiation and maintenance of adult romantic relationships (Impett et al., 2014), is poorly studied here. We know from cross-sectional studies that trait mindfulness and/or sexual mindfulness – that is, someone’s tendency to be mindful during partnered sexual activities (Adam, Heeren et al., 2015) – is positively associated with sexual satisfaction (Khaddouma et al., 2015; Pepping et al., 2018), orgasm consistency (Leavitt, Maurer et al., 2021), and some adaptive sexual motives (Dixon et al., 2022a, 2022b), but negatively related to hyper- and de- activation of the sexual system (Pepping et al., 2018).

However, these studies are limited by their reliance on correlational data, which cannot test causal hypotheses, and on trait measures of mindfulness, which may be subject to response biases (Grossman, 2008) and variation in the subjective meaning of mindfulness (Van Dam et al., 2018). A few intervention studies overcome these limitations, showing that general mindfulness may improve sexual functioning via increases in interoceptive awareness (Silverstein et al., 2011) and greater concordance between genital and subjective sexual arousal (Velten et al., 2020, 2018) in community-dwelling adult populations, and may benefit persons seeking support for sexual functioning disorders (e.g., Bossio et al., 2018; Brotto et al., 2020, 2021; Gunst et al., 2019). Although our focus on the moderating effects of attachment warranted a focus on general mindfulness training, other recent data suggest that training specifically in sexual mindfulness may be of benefit. Specifically, evidence suggests such training decreases sexual distress and improves desire, arousal, orgasm, and sexual satisfaction (Adam et al., 2020; Leavitt, Allsop et al., 2021), potentially as participants learn to slow down, pay attention, and communicate about their and their partners’ sexual needs non-judgementally (Leavitt, Whiting et al., 2021). However, what is still missing from this nascent body of work is a focus on whether mindfulness interventions affect broader cognitive, affective, and behavioral aspects of community-dwelling adults’ sexual experiences. Specifically, it is not yet known whether mindfulness affects how positively individuals rate their sexual experiences, the reasons why they have sex, and how responsive they are to their partner’s sexual needs (i.e., sexual communal strength) – variables that are thought to have a significant influence on whether sexual behaviors lead to better or worse personal and interpersonal outcomes (Impett et al., 2005; Muise, Impett, Desmarais et al., 2013; Muise, Impett, Kogan et al., 2013).

A second area of weakness in the nascent mindfulness literature looking at outcomes related to human sexuality regards the possibility of moderation, i.e., examining who mindfulness interventions most and least benefit. Although popular media has implied that mindfulness is a universal panacea (Gibbs, 2016; Gunderson, 2016; Huffington, 2013), evidence suggests otherwise (see Britton, 2019; Farias & Wikholm, 2016). Studies show that the effects of mindfulness are not equal across people and may even lead to adverse outcomes in some instances (e.g., Farias et al., 2020; Reynolds et al., 2017). Moderation by neuroticism has been demonstrated, with studies showing persons high (versus low) in neuroticism experience disproportionate benefits to wellbeing from mindfulness interventions (e.g., Norris et al., 2018; De Vibe et al., 2015). Higher trait mindfulness has also been linked with greater trust and perceived social support, but only among those with low, not high, PTSD symptomatology, indicating that mindfulness may have limited utility in some populations (Kuhl & Boyraz, 2017). Taken together, it seems plausible that a mindfulness intervention in the context of human sexual functioning might not be of equal benefit across all persons.

Attachment Dimensions as Potential Moderators of Mindfulness’ Effects on Sexuality

While there are many factors that might moderate the effect of a mindfulness intervention on sexual outcomes, attachment characteristics are likely candidates. Attachment – a dispositional “style” of relating to important others – is a central component of personality that exerts a powerful influence on individuals’ thoughts, feelings, motivations, and behaviors in attachment-relevant contexts (Bowlby, 1973; Collins & Allard, 2001; Mikulincer & Shaver, 2003), of which sex is one (Birnbaum, 2015). Higher attachment anxiety is characterized by a preoccupation with the emotional availability of close others, worries of rejection, low self-worth, and a “hyperactivation” of attachment concerns and strategies in an attempt to elicit reassurance from and connection with others (Simpson & Rholes, 2012). Attachment avoidance, on the other hand, is associated with a discomfort with intimacy, doubts about others’ trustworthiness, and a deactivation of attachment concerns and normative strategies in favor of self-reliance (Mikulincer et al., 2003).

While the characteristics of those high in attachment anxiety or avoidance are adaptive responses to a repeated inability to realize attachment security early in life, they have the potential to negatively affect relationship experiences throughout the lifespan (Collins & Allard, 2001). This includes affecting individuals’ sexual experiences. For example, consistent with their pronounced desire for closeness and reassurance, more anxiously attached persons report engaging in sex to reassure themselves of their value, establish intense intimacy, avoid negative relationship outcomes, and reduce feelings of insecurity (Davis et al., 2004; Impett et al., 2008; Schachner & Shaver, 2004). The experiences of sexual behavior characterizing anxious attachment also differ, with studies suggesting persons with these characteristics inhibit their own sexual needs in an attempt to hold on to or please a partner (Davis et al., 2006; Impett & Peplau, 2002). Such reports may index a tendency to respond to a partners’ sexual needs at the expense of their own (i.e., unmitigated sexual communal strength). Unsurprisingly then, they also report lower sexual satisfaction (Butzer & Campbell, 2008; Gewirtz-Meydan & Finzi-Dottan, 2018; Tracy et al., 2003), and greater disappointment, negative feelings, and interfering thoughts during sex (Birnbaum, 2007; Birnbaum et al., 2006). Perhaps as a consequence, more anxiously attached persons experience lower sexual arousal and less orgasmic responsivity (Birnbaum et al., 2006; Gewirtz-Meydan & Finzi-Dottan, 2018), the sum total of which indicate sub-optimal sexual experiences.

The attachment concerns of more avoidant individuals are also associated with systematic differences in sexual experience (e.g., Birnbaum et al., 2008; Cooper et al., 2006). Descriptively, attachment avoidance is associated with less sexual satisfaction, intimacy, enjoyment, and orgasmic responsivity (Birnbaum, 2007; Butzer & Campbell, 2008; Gewirtz-Meydan & Finzi-Dottan, 2018; Tracy et al., 2003). In terms of process, their discomfort with intimacy means sex is less likely to be used for the purpose of expressing love or facilitating closeness (Davis et al., 2004; Impett et al., 2008). Instead, motives for sex among the more avoidantly attached tend to be more concerned with facilitating autonomy, affirming themselves or their power, coping with negative emotion, and avoiding aversive relational experiences (e.g., conflict; Davis et al., 2004; Impett et al., 2008; Schachner & Shaver, 2004). While no evidence exists that speaks to their sexual communal strength (whether unmitigated or not), it is possible that their desire to remain independent means they are dispositionally lower in sexual communal strength.

A Rationale for Why Attachment Should Shape Mindfulness’ Effects on Sexuality

Given the complex ways in which attachment concerns are reflected in human sexuality, it is possible that attachment anxiety and avoidance alter how/whether mindfulness benefits sexual experience. Three existing lines of reasoning offer some guidance as to how this might occur. First, it has been suggested that the greater awareness afforded by mindfulness promotes access to feelings, thoughts, motivations, and behavioral tendencies that may otherwise remain below conscious awareness (Brown & Ryan, 2003). While this increased awareness may, at least initially or for some individuals, heighten distress due to increased accessibility or intrusiveness of difficult emotions or thoughts, increased awareness of these internal processes coupled with an acknowledgment that these experiences are transient should, in turn, promote greater emotion- and self- regulatory capacities (Britton et al., 2012; Teper et al., 2013). Together, such competencies may increase more insecure persons’ ability to identify attachment-related concerns as they become active and better manage how those concerns are expressed, including whether they go on to shape the motives for, feelings about, and behaviors during sex.

Second, rather than only buffering the translation or manifestation of attachment concerns into feeling, thought, motivation, and behavior, mindfulness may alter the attachment concerns that underlie them (Karremans et al., 2017). Specifically, mindfulness may prompt a revision of the views more insecure individuals hold about themselves, their partner, their relationship, or relationships in general (Karremans et al., 2017). Such revisions may, in turn, reduce attachment-related distress and the extent to which attachment concerns negatively affect sexual experiences.

Third, given mindfulness helps individuals to maintain body awareness (Hölzel et al., 2011) and attention to physiological sensations (Ortner et al., 2007), mindfulness may be particularly useful to more insecurely attached persons who typically report more attention-demanding (and negative) cognitive and affective experiences during sex (Birnbaum, 2007). Increased ability to regulate attention toward physiological pleasure during sex may mean persons high in attachment anxiety and/or avoidance are less “pulled” into the contents of their attachment concerns, allowing them to more readily notice and respond to their and their partner’s sexual needs, and ultimately enjoy a more fulfilling sexual experience.

In addition to there being general reasons to expect that attachment might moderate the effects of mindfulness on sexual outcomes, there are theoretical and empirical reasons to suspect that effects of mindfulness on sexuality may not be equivalent among more anxious versus more avoidant persons. Theory suggests that different processes should be responsible for reducing, or at least altering, the manifestations of attachment anxiety and avoidance, respectively (Arriaga et al., 2018). Specifically, whereas attachment anxiety is reduced when individuals repeatedly experience improvements to their working model of self or experience calm in relationally threatening situations, attachment avoidance is thought to decrease when individuals’ trust in others increases and their autonomy concerns are reduced (Arriaga et al., 2018). Given that mindfulness is arguably about one’s relationship to one’s own experience and is associated with improved emotion regulation and self-esteem (Britton et al., 2012; Randal et al., 2015; Teper et al., 2013), it seems more overtly relevant to processes involved in buffering attachment anxiety. In contrast, mindfulness seems less pertinent to the processes involved in altering attachment avoidance and thus it may not be of comparable benefit in buffering these characteristics. Further, and as we have argued elsewhere (e.g., Dixon et al., 2022a, 2022b), it is even possible that greater mindfulness might lead to worse outcomes among the more avoidant insofar as the development of mindfulness encompasses an increased awareness of attachment concerns that are typically defensively regulated (e.g., threatening feelings), while failing to provide the necessary coping strategies relevant to their internal working model.

While scanty, existing research provides some empirical support for this possibility. Saavedra et al. (2010) found that trait mindfulness buffered the link between attachment anxiety (but not avoidance) and relationship dissolution across a year. Cross-sectional and longitudinal research also suggests that trait mindfulness reduces the link between attachment anxiety and some maladaptive sexual motives, but either has no effect or an intensifying effect on the links between attachment avoidance and maladaptive sexual motives (Dixon et al., 2022a, 2022b). Finally, in the first and only study to test whether attachment dimensions moderate the relational effects of a mindfulness intervention, more (versus less) anxious persons derived greater benefit from the intervention as indexed by greater decreases in rejection fears and conflict, and greater increases in felt connection (Dixon et al., 2022c). In contrast, persons high in attachment avoidance tended not to report greater benefit from the mindfulness intervention and there was even some evidence that it may have increased reports of destructive behavior (Dixon et al., 2022c). More research is needed to corroborate these early findings and extend tests of mindfulness moderation by attachment into the sexual domain.

The Current Study

In summary, while researchers are beginning to explore whether mindfulness is of benefit to sexual expression and functioning, research in this area remains limited. Studies exploring the effects of mindfulness interventions on sexual cognition, affect, motivation, and behavior among community-dwelling adult populations are scarce, and to the best of our knowledge no studies have explored whether mindfulness’ effects on sexuality depend on individual differences in attachment – an aspect of personality that invariably shapes sexual experience (Birnbaum & Reis, 2019). Of the studies that have examined interactions between mindfulness and attachment in the prediction of sexual experiences, only trait measures of mindfulness have been used (i.e., Dixon et al., 2022a, 2022b). These measures may be subject to response biases (Grossman, 2008; Van Dam et al., 2018). Moreover, the way trait mindfulness and attachment dimensions interact may not reflect how mindfulness as taught in an intervention interacts with attachment to shape sexual outcomes. As such, in the present study, we tested whether attachment anxiety and avoidance moderate the effects of a brief, four-week, self-administered, online mindfulness intervention on a range of positive and negative sexual outcomes, including the positivity of sexual experience, self-focused approach-based sexual motives, other-focused avoidance-based sexual motives, other-focused avoidance-based sexual motives, and mitigated and unmitigated sexual communal strength.

Method

Recruitment and Participants

Ethics approval was granted by The University of Auckland Human Participants Ethics Committee (Reference: UAHPEC22749). The study was preregistered on the Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ANZCTR; ID: ACTRN12621000942853). Prospective participants were invited to opt-in to a study on “Interventions to boost relationship wellbeing in daily life,” which was advertised via paid advertisements on Facebook and to a Faculty-wide e-mail list. Interested persons clicked through to a secure REDcap hosted webpage to check eligibility and read more about the study. Only persons 18 years or older, fluent in English, in a relationship of more than one year, and living with their romantic partner in New Zealand could participate. Prospective participants were excluded if they were currently undergoing relationship counseling. Before consenting, eligible participants were informed that participation was voluntary, they could withdraw at any time, and that participation would be remunerated in a way that was commensurate with their participation. Specifically, participants were told that if they completed at least 60% of the entries within each daily diary period, they would get one entry into a prize draw to win one of three iPads, and an additional entry/entries would be given for every 7 days of the intervention completed.

Given the absence of prior research permitting an effect size estimate for the intended statistical models, we thus aimed to recruit enough participants to power our model to detect a small to medium sized effect (f = .20). G*Power indicated that the minimum required sample size to detect such effects using a mixed analysis of variance (ANOVA), including within-subject (2 time points) and between-subject (2 groups) effects with 80% power and at a 2-sided 5% significance level, was 200 participants. Of a total of 635 individuals assessed for eligibility (of whom 593 qualified), an initial sample of 200 individuals consented and were recruited. However, for inclusion in analyses, participants needed to have completed at least one (of 7) daily diary entry pre- and post-intervention and to have listened to at least 3 (of 28) daily mindfulness recordings. This left a final sample of 90 participants. Descriptive characterization of the final sample, including information regarding the degree of engagement in the intervention and contrasts of those who were included versus excluded, can be seen in Table 1. There were no significant differences between excluded and included participants in demographic, attachment, or sexual characteristics. However, as would be expected, included participants reported more frequent use of the audio-recordings and completed more daily diary entries than excluded participants.

Table 1. Retention analyses contrasting characteristics of included versus excluded participants.

	Included	Excluded	Contrast
Demographics
Mean Age (SD)	33.23 (7.71)	32.64 (9.46)	.49a
Mean Relationship Length (months) (SD)	106.81 (79.49)	99.20 (91.03)	.62a
% Female	93.33%	91.82%	.86b
% Heterosexual	78.89%	84.55%	2.49b
% Monogamous	95.56%	96.36%	1.43b
% New Zealand European	72.22%	63.64%	1.66b
% Currently or Previously Sexually Active	100.00%	100.00%	n/a
% With No or Minimal Meditation Experience	77.78%	85.00%	1.45b
Adherence information
Mean Days Listened to Audio-Recording (SD)	18.29 (7.39)	1.08 (2.54)	21.10a*
Mean Days Completed Pre-Int. Diary (SD)	6.84 (.63)	3.15 (3.00)	12.58a*
Mean Days Completed Post-Int. Diary (SD)	5.88 (1.65)	0.11 (0.75)	30.73a*
Attachment and sexual variables
Anxious Attachment	3.12 (1.00)	3.28 (1.06)	−1.02a
Avoidant Attachment	2.53 (.82)	2.76 (1.05)	−1.66a
Positive Sexual Experience	5.58 (1.29)	5.49 (1.23)	.35a
Self-Focused Approach-Based Sexual Motives	4.74 (1.38)	4.60 (1.27)	.59a
Other Focused Approach-Based Sexual Motives	5.64 (.90)	5.69 (1.06)	−.26a
Other Focused Avoidance-Based Sexual Motives	1.96 (1.38)	2.11 (1.27)	−.64a
Sexual Communal Strength	4.91 (1.08)	4.69 (1.41)	.94a
Unmitigated Sexual Communal Strength	3.09 (1.28)	2.95 (1.26)	.53a

Int = Intervention. All demographic and attachment variables were measured at baseline. The sexual variables were measured each day (when relevant) for 7 days prior to the mindfulness intervention and then aggregated to represent a pre-intervention average of those scores. _a = independent samples t-test, _b = Chi-Square test.

Procedure

Following ethical approval, data were collected between July 2021 and October 2021. Participants proceeded through four phases. First, participants completed questionnaires assessing demographics and attachment. Second, participants completed daily questionnaires for 7 days asking them to report on their sexual experiences and motivations that day (participants were also required to report on general relationship experiences but these are not germane to the present report). Third, participants listened to 10-minute mindfulness audio-recordings each day for four weeks. After each audio-recording, participants were asked to indicate whether they listened to all, none, or part of the audio-recording in order to assess compliance. Missing responses to this daily question were interpreted as a lack of listening to the audio-recording that day. Finally, participants completed a second set of daily questionnaires measuring post-intervention sexual experiences and motivations each day for 7 days. Links to complete the pre- and post- intervention daily questionnaires and listen to the audio-recordings were sent daily via text messages. Text messages were sent using Twilio, an automated communications platform, that integrated with our data collection software, REDcap, which “told” Twilio when to send text messages. Texts requesting completion of the daily questionnaires (during phases two and four) were sent at 8pm, with an automatic reminder sent at 7:30am the next morning if a response to the relevant daily questionnaire had not been completed. Texts providing a link to the relevant daily mindfulness audio-recording (phase three) were sent at 6am each day, and a reminder text was sent at 8pm the same day if the mindfulness audio recording had not yet been accessed.

The daily 10-minute guided mindfulness exercises were modeled off recordings used in Karremans et al.’s (2020) RCT study and developed with reference to mindfulness’ core components (Bishop et al., 2004) and mindfulness teaching guidelines (McCown et al., 2010). Recordings were completed by the first author who was part-way through Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) teacher training at the time of recording. Exercises proceeded through four phases. Participants were given instructions regarding posture and then invited to pay attention to the body and breathing. They were invited to direct attention toward present moment experiences (i.e., emotions, thoughts, bodily sensations), and were encouraged to acknowledge the transient nature of these experiences. Metaphors were used to help participants understand this instruction (e.g., experiences that arise within consciousness were likened to the waterfall, which participants could simply watch from a vantage point). Participants were then invited to bring this quality of attention into their interactions with their partner. Four different versions of this exercise were offered over the four weeks that differed slightly in wording and metaphors used but not in overall intent and content.

Measures

All questionnaire measures were scored and averaged so that higher scores reflect greater levels of the construct. Means and standard deviations of continuous variables can be found in Table 1, and correlations in Table 2.

Table 2. Correlations between attachment dimensions and relationship outcomes at baseline.

	1.	2.	3.	4.	5.	6.	7.
1. Attachment Anxiety	-
2. Attachment Avoidance	.54***	-
3. Positive Sexual Experience	−.06	−.09	-
4. SF Approach-Based SM	.10	−.04	.51***	-
5. OF Approach-Based SM	−.20	−.22	.35**	.22*	-
6. OF Avoidance-Based SM	.19	.22	−.51***	−.43***	−.09	-
7. SCS	.00	−.02	.13	.05	.52***	−.01	-
8. Unmitigated SCS	.05	−.00	−.49***	−.32*	.09	.40**	.39**

*p ≤ .05 **p ≤ .01 ***p ≤ .001. Note, SF. = Self-Focused, OF = Other-Focused, SM = Sexual Motives, SCS = Sexual Communal Strength.

Baseline Measures

Attachment Insecurity

Attachment anxiety and avoidance were measured using the Experiences in Close Relationships–Revised Questionnaire (ECR-R; Fraley et al., 2000), which has a reliable and replicable two-factor structure and good internal consistency (Sibley & Liu, 2004). Eighteen items assessed attachment anxiety (e.g., “I’m afraid that I will lose my partner’s love”) and 18 assessed attachment avoidance (e.g., “I find it difficult to allow myself to depend on romantic partners”). Items were responded to on a 7-point scale from 1 (completely disagree) to 7 (completely agree). Each dimension demonstrated good internal reliability (anxiety α = .89, avoidance α = .90). For analyses, each dimension was recoded into a binary categorical variable split around the median.

Trait Mindfulness

Baer et al’s. (2006) 39-item Five Factor Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) was used to assess whether trait mindfulness changed over the course of the intervention. Five facets make up the FFMQ, including observing (being aware of stimuli), describing (mentally putting experience into words), acting with awareness (taking considered action rather than acting absent-mindedly (i.e., “reacting”)), non-judging (withholding evaluation or criticism of an experience), and non-reactivity (resisting impulsive reactions). Items were rated on a 5-point scale from 1 (never or very rarely true) to 5 (very often or always true). Each facet demonstrated good internal reliability pre and post intervention (Cronbach’s values ranged between .81 and .94).

Pre- and Post- Intervention Measures

Each day during the pre- and post- intervention diary periods, participants answered the following question: “Have you and your partner engaged in sexual activity since the last time you completed a daily survey (i.e. penile-vaginal intercourse, anal intercourse, oral sex (receiving and giving), manual stimulation (touching/massaging of genitals))?” If they answered “yes,” then all measures outlined below were presented to participants for answering. If “no,” they were asked: “Even though you and your partner didn’t engage in partnered sex since the last time you completed a daily survey, have you been motivated to engage in sexual activity?” If “yes,” participants were prompted to answer items that make up the sexual motivation variables outlined below only. If “no,” participants were not prompted to answer any questions about sexual experiences that day.

Positive Sexual Experience

Eight items previously used in a daily diary study of sexual experience (Birnbaum et al., 2006) or created for the purpose of this study assessed positive sexual experiences: “When the sexual activity was first initiated, I felt physically aroused,” “During the sexual activity, I felt physically aroused,” “During or after the sexual activity, I felt some frustration and disappointment” (reverse-coded), “During the sexual activity, I didn’t feel a great deal of sexual desire” (reverse-coded), “During the sexual activity, I felt bored and apathetic” (reverse-coded), “During the sexual activity, I reached a satisfying orgasm,” “During the sexual activity, I felt passionately attracted to my partner,” and “During the sexual activity, I experienced a lot of pleasure.” Items were responded to on a 7-point scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Repeated responses to these eight pre-intervention and eight post-intervention items were then aggregated to create average scores of each item for both diary periods. A component analysis with these 8 items assessing pre-intervention sexual experiences and 10 items assessing pre-intervention sexual motivations (outlined below) showed that the 8 items assessing sexual experiences loaded onto a single factor. On this basis, we aggregated the eight pre-intervention sexual experience items to form an average score indexing pre-intervention positive sexual experiences. The same was done to create an average score indexing post-intervention positive sexual experiences. This measure demonstrated good internal reliability at both time points (pre-intervention α = .91, post-intervention α = .91).

Sexual Motives

Participants rated 10 items assessing sexual motivations that were adapted from Cooper et al. (1998) and used in previous daily diary studies (Impett et al., 2008, 2005). Each item was rated in terms of how much they motivated participants’ decision to have sex on a 7-point scale from 1 (not at all important) to 7 (extremely important): (1) Pursuing one’s own pleasure, (2) feeling good about oneself, (3) pleasing a partner, (4) building intimacy in the relationship, (5) expressing love for a partner, (6) avoiding relationship conflict, (7) preventing a partner becoming upset (8) preventing a partner becoming angry, (9) preventing a partner losing interest, and (10) because of feelings of sexual obligation. Akin to the operationalization process outlined for the positive sexual experiences variable above, repeated scores of these motivations across both diary periods were aggregated to form average scores for each motivation in each diary period. The results of the aforementioned component analysis demonstrated that these 10 items loaded onto three sexual motivations factors consistent with Cooper’s model (1998). Accordingly, items were categorized into three sexual motivation types: self-focused approach-based (items 1–2), other-focused approach-based (items 3–5), and other-focused avoidance-based sexual motives (items 6–10). Each type of motivation demonstrated good internal reliability (self-focused approach-based sexual motives: pre-intervention α = .77, post-intervention α = .80; other-focused approach-based sexual motives: pre-intervention α = .73, post-intervention α = .72; other-focused avoidance-based sexual motives: pre-intervention α = .95, post-intervention α = .88).

Sexual Communal Strength

Participants used a 1 (Strongly disagree) to 7 (Strongly agree) scale to respond to three items previously used to assess daily sexual communal strength (Impett et al., 2019). These items were adapted from a previously validated 6-item measure of sexual communal strength (Muise, Impett et al., 2013b). We chose the 3-item measure to prevent attrition due to demands of lengthy questionnaires. Items were as follows: “During the sexual activity, I was focused on meeting my partner’s needs,” “Meeting my partner’s needs was a high priority for me during sex,” and “During the sexual activity, I did things to meet my partner’s needs without expecting him or her to directly reciprocate.” Repeated responses to all these items were then aggregated to create the overall variable indexing sexual communal strength for each diary period. The measure demonstrated sufficient internal reliability at both time points (pre-intervention α = .61, post-intervention α = .79).

Unmitigated Sexual Communal Strength

Participants responded to three items previously used to assess daily unmitigated sexual communal strength (Impett et al., 2019), which were taken from a validated measure of unmitigated communion (Helgeson, 1993) and adapted to focus on sexual encounters in particular. Items were as follows: “During the sexual activity, I was only focused on meeting my partners needs,” “During the sexual activity, I put my partners needs ahead of my own needs,” and “During the sexual activity, it was impossible for me to satisfy my own needs if they conflicted with my partner’s needs.” Items were rated on a 7-point scale from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 7 (Strongly agree). Repeated responses to all these items were then aggregated to form the overall variable indexing unmitigated sexual communal strength for each diary period. The measure demonstrated sufficient to low internal reliability at both time points (pre-intervention α = .75, post-intervention α = .57).

Statistical Analysis

Data were analyzed using IBM SPSS Version 28. To test the prediction that any beneficial effect of the mindfulness intervention on sexual outcomes would be comparably evidenced at high versus low attachment anxiety, we conducted repeated measures (RM) ANCOVAs with main factors of time (pre-intervention versus post-intervention) and attachment anxiety (high versus low) and their interaction. Attachment avoidance and two variables indexing the number of times an individual had, or was motivated to have, sex at both pre- and post-intervention were included as covariates given the likely role they play in reports of sexual experiences and motivations. Adherence to the intervention was also included as a covariate. To follow, six analogous models in which attachment avoidance was modeled as the main effect (and anxiety as a covariate) were used to examine whether the magnitude and direction of any effects of the mindfulness intervention on sexual outcomes depended on level of attachment avoidance. Post-hoc t-tests were used to deconstruct significant two-way interactions between attachment anxiety and time.

Results

Though the present report was designed and instantiated in the pre-registration as a test of moderation, Table 3 presents the results of RM ANOVAs testing whether trait mindfulness changed over the course of the intervention. As can be seen, observe mindfulness increased over time, and non-judging mindfulness marginally increased, while change in other dimensions (and the FFMQ total score) were not significant. More relevant to our primary research questions, Table 4 presents the results of all RM ANCOVAs that tested whether attachment anxiety (top) and avoidance (bottom) would moderate any effects of the mindfulness intervention on sexual outcomes over time. As can be seen, none of the main effects of time or attachment anxiety were significant. There were, however, main effects of attachment avoidance and the variable indexing the number of times an individual had or was motivated to have sex during the pre-intervention period, in the prediction of other-focused avoidance-based sexual motives. Of greater relevance to the key questions of this report, there were two significant interactions between time and attachment anxiety in the prediction of self-focused approach-based sexual motives and sexual communal strength.

Table 3. Results of repeated measures ANOVAs examining pre- to post-intervention change in mindfulness facets and overall mindfulness.

	Pre		Post		F(1,70)	p	η^2
	M	SD	M	SD
FFMQ Observe	3.26	.70	3.38	.80	4.59	.036	.06
FFMQ Describe	3.54	.81	3.58	.83	.59	.447	.01
FFMQ Acting with Awareness	3.07	.69	3.03	.75	.47	.496	.01
FFMQ Non-Judgment	3.21	.89	3.34	.97	3.06	.084	.04
FFMQ Non-Reactivity	3.17	.55	3.07	.58	2.66	.108	.04
FFMQ total score	3.25	.50	3.29	.54	.85	.360	.01

Sample is only with 71 participants rather than the full 90 that were included as 19 people did not complete the final FFMQ scale.

Table 4. The effects of the covariates, time, attachment anxiety, and the interaction between time and attachment anxiety (top) and the effect of the covariates, time, attachment avoidance, and the interaction between time and attachment avoidance (bottom) in the prediction of the outcome variables.

	Positive Sexual Experience			Self-Focused Approach-Based Sexual Motives			Other Focused Approach-Based Sexual Motives			Other Focused Avoidance-Based Sexual Motives			Sexual Communal Strength			Unmitigated Sexual Communal Strength
	F	p	η^2	F	p	η^2	F	p	η^2	F	p	η^2	F	p	η^2	F	p	η^2
Attachment Anxiety
IntAdhere	.87	.356	.02	.02	.900	.00	.50	.481	.01	.03	.863	.00	2.50	.122	.06	2.31	.137	.06
PreCountSexOrMotiv	1.35	.253	.03	1.19	.280	.02	1.70	.198	.03	4.34	.042	.07	.11	.746	.00	.09	.770	.00
PostCountSexOrMotiv	1.54	.222	.04	3.18	.079	.05	.65	.424	.01	2.20	.143	.04	2.14	.151	.05	.017	.687	.00
AttAvd	1.24	.272	.03	.26	.610	.00	.02	.896	.00	5.52	.022	.08	.02	.883	.00	.94	.339	.02
Time	.93	.341	.02	2.20	.143	.04	.93	.339	.02	.02	.895	.00	.00	.965	.00	1.58	.216	.04
AttAnx	.27	.606	.01	3.24	.077	.05	.76	.388	.01	.96	.331	.02	1.30	.261	.03	.11	.745	.00
Time*AttAnx	1.34	.255	.03	7.17	.010	.11	.20	.656	.00	1.48	.228	.02	5.64	.023	.13	.57	.454	.01
Attachment Avoidance
IntAdhere	.87	.356	.02	.02	.900	.00	.50	.481	.01	.03	.863	.00	2.50	.122	.06	2.31	.137	.06
PreCountSexOrMotiv	1.35	.253	.03	1.19	.280	.02	1.70	.198	.03	4.34	.042	.07	.11	.746	.00	.09	.770	.00
PostCountSexOrMotiv	1.54	.222	.04	3.18	.079	.05	.65	.424	.01	2.20	.143	.04	2.14	.151	.05	.17	.687	.00
AttAnx	.27	.606	.01	3.24	.077	.05	.76	.388	.01	.96	.331	.02	1.30	.261	.03	.11	.745	.01
Time	.22	.642	.01	.58	.450	.01	1.23	.272	.02	.01	.908	.00	.20	.660	.01	1.05	.311	.03
AttAvd	1.24	.272	.03	.26	.610	.00	.02	.896	.00	5.52	.022	.08	.02	.883	.00	.94	.339	.02
Time*AttAvd	.53	.471	.01	.04	.837	.00	1.00	.321	.02	.13	.722	.00	.24	.627	.01	.02	.904	.00

λ = Wilks’ Lambda; IntAdhere = Interventional Adherence; PreCountSexOrMotiv = The number of times an individual had, or was motivated to have, sex during the pre-intervention period; PostCountSexOrMotiv = The number of times an individual had, or was motivated to have, sex during the post-intervention period; AttAnx = Attachment Anxiety; AttAvd = Attachment Avoidance.

Post-hoc tests probing the first significant interaction effect revealed that while self-focused approach-based sexual motivations were stable between Time 1 and 2 for those low in attachment anxiety (Wilk’s λ = .96, F(1, 30) = 1.17, p = .288, η² = .04), there was an increase in self-focused approach-based sexual motivations among those high in attachment anxiety (Wilk’s λ = .84, F(1, 34) = 6.49, p = .016, η² = .16; see, Figure 1 and Table 5). Further confirming our assumption that changes in sexual experiences over the course of the intervention would depend on level of attachment anxiety, post-hoc t-tests revealed no difference in self-focused approach-based sexual motivations between those high versus low in attachment anxiety at Time 1 (t(75) =, p = .629), whereas there was a significant difference in this motivation between those high versus low in attachment anxiety at Time 2 (t(72) =, p = .003).

Figure 1. Rates of self-focused approach based sexual motivations among those high versus low in attachment anxiety across the two time points.

Table 5. Means, standard deviations, and pairwise comparisons of the outcome variables at each time point for persons high versus low in attachment anxiety (top) and avoidance (bottom).

		T1	T2	Difference Between T1 & T2
		M(SD)	M(SD)	Mean difference (SE)	p
Attachment Anxiety
Positive Sexual Experience	High	5.69 (1.35)	5.77 (1.02)	−.08 (.20)	.681
	Low	5.66 (1.11)	5.51 (1.38)	.15 (.13)	.260
Self-Focused Approach-Based Sexual Motives	High	4.86 (1.34)	5.37 (1.35)	−.51 (.20)	.016
	Low	4.59 (1.28)	4.44 (1.43)	.15 (.14)	.288
Other-Focused Approach-Based Sexual Motives	High	5.68 (.89)	5.84 (.92)	−.16 (.11)	.160
	Low	5.86 (.91)	5.88 (.83)	−.01 (.15)	.934
Other-Focused Avoidance-Based Sexual Motives	High	2.14 (1.46)	1.72 (.85)	.41 (.15)	.012
	Low	1.68 (2.14)	1.46 (.82)	.21 (.10)	.033
Sexual Communal Strength	High	5.04 (1.03)	4.78 (1.40)	.26 (.19)	.177
	Low	4.99 (.94)	5.35 (1.08)	−.36 (.18)	.061
Unmitigated Sexual Communal Strength	High	3.20 (1.31)	3.03 (1.05)	.17 (.16)	.31
	Low	3.09 (1.04)	3.06 (1.23)	.03 (.23)	.890
Attachment Avoidance
Positive Sexual Experience	High	5.42 (1.31)	5.40 (1.24)	.02 (.17)	.886
	Low	5.90 (1.16)	5.89 (1.09)	.01 (.19)	.976
Self-Focused Approach-Based Sexual Motives	High	4.58 (1.17)	4.94 (1.39)	−.36 (.20)	.084
	Low	4.86 (1.42)	4.93 (1.52)	−.07 (.17)	.695
Other–Focused Avoidance-Based Sexual Motives	High	2.30 (1.61)	1.91 (.91)	.39 (.18)	.040
	Low	1.60 (1.04)	1.34 (.69)	.26 (.08)	.003
Other–Focused Approach-Based Sexual Motives	High	5.61 (.93)	5.87 (.77)	−.26 (.16)	.114
	Low	5.90 (.86)	5.85 (.96)	.05 (.10)	.622
Sexual Communal Strength	High	5.01 (.94)	4.77 (1.34)	.24 (.21)	.266
	Low	5.04 (1.04)	5.25 (1.23)	−.21 (.18)	.241
Unmitigated Sexual Communal Strength	High	3.35 (1.13)	3.19 (1.12)	.16 (.23)	.486
	Low	2.98 (1.25)	2.91 (1.12)	.07 (.16)	.663

Post-hoc comparisons probing the second interaction indicated that those high in attachment anxiety tended to report a non-significant decrease in sexual communal strength (Wilk’s λ = .93, F(1, 25) = 1.93, p = .177, η² = .07), whereas those low in attachment anxiety tended to report an increase (Wilk’s λ = .82, F(1, 18) = 4.01, p = .061, η² = .18; see Figure 2 and Table 5). Independently, both slopes were non-significant, however. Post-hoc t-tests contrasting levels of sexual communal strength between those high versus low in attachment anxiety revealed no significant differences at Time 1 (t(57) = −.05, p = .956) or Time 2 (t(57) = 1.40, p = .161).

Figure 2. Rates of sexual communal strength among those high versus low in attachment anxiety across the two time points.

Discussion

The current study was designed to examine the effects of a brief online mindfulness intervention on aspects of sexual functioning and to test whether interventional effects were moderated by attachment anxiety or avoidance. Inconsistent with expectation, there was no specific benefit of the mindfulness intervention and moderation analyses also failed to show the expected effects in which mindfulness buffered the effects of attachment anxiety on reports of other-focused avoidance-based sexual motivations and unmitigated sexual communal strength (i.e., negative sexual experiences). Somewhat more consistent with expectation, interactions between anxiety and time showed that more (versus less) anxiously attached participants reported increased self-focused approach-based sexual motives but decreased sexual communal strength. Similarly, consistent with expectation was the absence of interactions between time and avoidant attachment. Taken together, these findings seem to suggest that while the mindfulness intervention did not improve sexual outcomes overall, it appeared to encourage more anxiously attached persons to reprioritize sexual motives related to their own pleasure. Below, we discuss these results more fully. First, we consider the absence of overall effects and effects on negative sexual experiences (i.e., other-focused avoidance-based sexual motivations and unmitigated sexual communal strength) among more anxiously or avoidantly attached persons. Second, we consider why mindfulness training differentially enhanced self-focused approach-based sexual motives among those higher in attachment anxiety. We then discuss study limitations and end by offering future directions for mindfulness research in the area of relational and sexual functioning.

Why Was Mindfulness Not of General or Specific Benefit? Unpacking the Absence of Effects

Given prior studies (i.e., Dixon et al., 2022a; Pepping et al., 2018; Saavedra et al., 2010; Silverstein et al., 2011; Velten et al., 2018), the absence of any overall benefit of mindfulness on sexual functioning or any buffering effect of mindfulness on more anxiously attached persons’ reporting of negative sexual experiences is somewhat surprising. Previous research has linked both trait mindfulness and mindfulness interventions with better sexual functioning (Silverstein et al., 2011; Velten et al., 2020, 2018) and trait mindfulness has previously been shown to weaken associations between attachment anxiety and more maladaptive sexual motives (Dixon et al., 2022a, 2022b).

In interpreting the absence of comparable main and interaction effects in the present study, several possibilities are evident. One initial possibility is that the methods and/or sample employed here differed in meaningful ways from those in prior studies. Most prior work in the area has been non-interventional and has relied on measures of trait mindfulness, which may fail to accurately measure the intended construct (i.e., construct validity issues; Goldberg et al., 2019) or may not predict sexual outcomes in the same ways that mindfulness interventions do (Van Dam et al., 2018). In the few interventional studies, researchers have tended to focus on physiological sexual outcomes (rather than cognitive, affective, or behavioral outcomes; Velten et al., 2020), used samples experiencing sexual distress (Brotto et al., 2021; Gunst et al., 2019), delivered interventions in-person (Brotto et al., 2020, 2021; Gunst et al., 2019; Silverstein et al., 2011; Velten et al., 2020), and/or utilized longer or more intensive interventions (i.e., 12-weeks; Silverstein et al., 2011). Such methodological differences may have resulted in different patterns of outcomes than seen in the present study.

One obvious possibility for the relative absence of effects could be that the “dose” of mindfulness used in this study was relatively small, perhaps too small for mindfulness to affect sexual experiences. It is also possible that issues with power restricted our ability to detect intervention-based changes in sexual experiences. Indeed, while we recruited enough participants to find small- to medium-sized effects (see the preregistration), more than half of participants dropped out, reducing power. Relatedly, many participants did not adhere to the protocol as prescribed, and, even when they did adhere, may have varied in their level of focus, potentially leading to reduced intervention effectiveness and a reduced likelihood that the expected changes eventuated. While results of the present study were not moderated by adherence, at least as defined by the number of days they engaged in the intervention, it is possible that moderation by adherence may have been apparent if it was defined as participants’ level of focus on interventional materials.

A potentially more fruitful possibility is that the elements of more mindful functioning that impact sexual outcomes in established relationships may take longer than 4 weeks to develop. Mindfulness is not a unitary construct. Indeed, self-report measures of mindfulness list awareness, attention-regulation, acceptance/non-judgment, and non-reactivity as core features (e.g., Baer et al., 2006; Brown & Ryan, 2003; Lau et al., 2006). In theory, different mechanisms might facilitate the development of different components of mindfulness, and individual components may emerge in a different sequence or at different rates. Broadly consistent with this possibility, observing mindfulness was the only facet that changed over the course of the intervention in the present study. This is potentially because observational (i.e., awareness) skills may develop more easily or quickly compared to non-judgment, non-reactivity, and acting with awareness, which may require greater effort, depend on the prior development of other mindfulness elements (e.g., awareness; Brown & Ryan, 2003), and thus emerge more gradually (Van Dam et al., 2018). Whether these more complex elements are needed to generate positive change in sexual experiences is unknown but prior work suggests they are more closely associated with beneficial intrapersonal outcomes (Medvedev et al., 2021; Roca et al., 2019). Thus, if particular elements of mindfulness are important to sexual functioning but these elements were unable to change in the time/dose of the intervention (or in the context of an established relationship), this might help explain why participants reported no change in sexual outcomes.

However, while the absence of general effects and interaction effects between mindfulness and attachment anxiety was inconsistent with expectation, the absence of effects among more avoidantly attached persons was not surprising. As noted, while theory has suggested that mindfulness should offer similar benefits to both anxious and avoidant persons (Atkinson, 2013; Brown et al., 2007; Karremans et al., 2017), empirical studies suggest specific benefits for more anxious versus more avoidant persons are to be expected (Dixon et al., 2022a, 2022b, 2022c). Some have even suggested that mindfulness may be a double-edged sword for more avoidant persons (e.g., Dixon et al., 2022b). To this extent, the present study is consistent with prior cross-sectional data suggesting few benefits for more avoidant persons. In interpreting why this might be, the Attachment Security Enhancement Model (ASEM; Arriaga et al., 2018) is helpful. The ASEM suggests that attachment avoidance is reduced when persons confront experiences that contradict their negative views of others and their confidence in others’ responsiveness increases (Arriaga et al., 2018). Given mindfulness training is arguably less about how others are viewed and more about one’s relationship to oneself and one’s own experience, mindfulness may be less relevant to the key other-focused concerns characterizing attachment avoidance.

Why Attachment Anxiety Moderated Mindfulness’ Effects on Positive Sexual Experiences

As noted, prior research has shown that trait mindfulness buffers the links between attachment anxiety and more maladaptive sexual motives (Dixon et al., 2022a, 2022b), though data regarding how mindfulness affects pleasure-based motivations has been missing. One prior (albeit marginal) finding from a cross-sectional study has suggested that the effect of attachment anxiety on reporting having sex to pursue one’s own pleasure was reduced among those reporting greater non-judging mindfulness (i.e., potentially a form of self-denying; Dixon et al., 2022b). In the current interventional study, however, an effect to the contrary was found; self-focused approach-based sexual motives increased among more (but not less) anxiously attached participants across the intervention.

Two initial interpretative possibilities may help explain this effect. First, repeatedly reporting on sexual experiences may differentially increase the awareness of having sex for personal pleasure among the more anxiously attached (i.e., a “mere measurement” effect; Conner et al., 2011; Godin et al., 2010). Certain personalities appear predisposed to respond to the non-treatment-related aspects of interventions (e.g., measurement; Darragh et al., 2015); attachment anxiety may fall into this category. We know that anxiously attached persons closely monitor relationships for signs of threat (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2003). Such vigilance may operate more broadly, inclining them toward greater monitoring of (and responsiveness to) outside inputs than their less anxious counterparts. This dispositional tendency may, in turn, make more anxiously attached persons more susceptible to change due to the “mere” act of specifically attending to and reporting on sexual functioning.

This “mere measurement” interpretation, however, does not explain why this effect only emerged for own pleasure-based sexual motives (rather than more broadly). While we cannot know for sure, two possibilities may explain this finding. First, that reports of pleasure-based motives but not sexual experiences changed may suggest that motivations are easier to change than sexual experiences that have a complex individual and relationship history and involve another person. Second, own pleasure-based motives may be easier to change than other-focused sexual motives among more anxiously attached persons because motives regarding one’s own pleasure are less intertwined with the functions of the attachment system than motives focused on another person. Other-focused sexual motives and responsiveness to a partner’s sexual desires may be harder to alter because they are more closely tied to the workings of the attachment system and may serve important interpersonal regulatory functions for more anxious persons.

A second possibility for why self-focused approach-based sexual motives increased among the more anxiously attached could be that, rather than “mere measurement,” mindfulness itself was responsible for these changes. Specifically, the precise elements of mindfulness that impact self-focused approach-based sexual motivations (e.g., awareness) may have had sufficient time to develop across the intervention. Developing awareness via mindfulness training may have helped more anxious individuals to enhance bodily awareness (Hölzel et al., 2011) and attention to physiological sensations (Ortner et al., 2007), such that they were more able to enjoy the more positive and pleasurable aspects of sex. Experiencing physical pleasure may, in turn, have led to a stronger sense of being motivated by self-focused approach-based sexual motives.

However, why self-focused approach-based motives increased solely among more anxiously attached persons is less clear. As argued, it could be that more anxiously attached persons are dispositionally more responsive to outside inputs and thus are more susceptible to change from any intervention. However, it is also possible that the elements of mindfulness responsible for prompting increases in motives of this kind are particularly beneficial to more anxiously attached persons, who typically report more maladaptive and avoidance-based sexual motives (Cooper et al., 2006). Specifically, by increasing their ability to accept themselves without judgment, mindfulness may have improved more anxiously attached persons’ working model of self (Randal et al., 2015), a pathway thought to be involved in buffering attachment anxiety (Arriaga et al., 2018). This, in turn, may have prompted a “healthier” sexual motivation profile, whereby positive and pleasurable experiences (specifically for the self) were given greater importance.

Limitations and Future Directions

While the current study offers a useful extension to prior cross-sectional work, it is not without limitations. First, participant attrition was unexpectedly high. Although no differences in demographic, psychological, or sexual variables were detected between included and excluded participants, the high attrition rate may have introduced external bias, which limits extrapolation of findings (Marcellus, 2004). It is possible this high attrition rate occurred as a result of the high study demands. In particular, capturing reports of sexual experiences for 7-days pre- and 7-days post-intervention may have contributed to drop-out levels. This sampling method reduced the likelihood of reporting bias via aggregation and was further justified by the variability inherent to human sexual behavior over time (Bodenmann et al., 2010). However, future research could consider using less demanding measurement to minimize attrition, especially if the intervention itself is also time intensive. Attrition may have been exacerbated because the intervention was insufficiently engaging, potentially due to a lack of facilitator or group contact or due to technology-mediated communication and delivery issues. Although online interventions provide benefits in terms of cost-effectiveness, accessibility, and flexibility, future research could pay greater attention to how to maintain engagement during online-delivered mindfulness programs. Finally, the study took place when many participants were living through a government-mandated COVID lockdown, which may have placed additional burdens on participants and increased the likelihood of dropping-out. Relatedly, reports of sexual experiences among those who did participate sufficiently may still have been affected by COVID. Accordingly, future research could replicate this study when the population of interest is not experiencing pandemic-related restrictions, so as to reduce attrition and increase generalizability of results.

Second, it is possible that training participants in general mindfulness may not have been as effective in altering participants’ sexual experiences as if we had trained them in sexual mindfulness (although there are likely some practical challenges to such research). Indeed, research indicates that trait and sexual mindfulness are distinct constructs (Adam, Géonet et al., 2015; Adam, Heeren et al., 2015) and that sexual mindfulness predicts sexual outcomes over and above general mindfulness (Adam, Heeren et al., 2015; Leavitt et al., 2019, 2021). In theory, interventions that teach individuals to bring a quality of mindful attention and acceptance specifically into the sexual domain, rather than more generally across everyday life, might have been better able to target and buffer the sexual manifestations of attachment insecurity. Future research should test this possibility.

Third, the absence of a control means we cannot conclude that effects were due to mindfulness per se. Indeed, outcomes may have been due to a relaxation-type effect associated with the intervention (see Dixon et al., 2022c), expectancy effects, the effects of time, and/or “mere measurement” effects (Godin et al., 2010). Fourth, while alternatives are unclear, our reliance on self-report measures of sexual experiences may have been biased by social-desirability effects or participants’ inability to accurately recall their sexual experiences fully. Fifth, categorizing what is assumed to be a continuously varying latent attachment construct would have reduced the power to detect meaningful associations. Sixth, the vast majority of our sample was female, potentially reducing the generalizability of these results to other genders. Seventh, the interpretive framework we used may constrain understanding of why people have sex. Future research could consider utilizing an intrinsic versus extrinsic lens via which to understand sexual motives (Gravel et al., 2016; Green-Demers et al., 2002). Eighth, the mindfulness intervention was designed to be brief and accessed independently and remotely by participants. While some studies suggest that smaller doses of mindfulness are as effective as larger doses when predicting depression, anxiety, and stress (Strohmaier, 2020), sexual experiences or processes that occur between people may require a larger interventional dose to change. Nineth, the lack of follow-up measurement prevents us from testing whether treatment effects persisted in the longer-term. Future research could address these limitations by using longer mindfulness-based programmes with active controls, measurement paradigms that minimize participant burden, continuous measures of attachment, and longitudinal measurement of effects.

Conclusion

Despite research increasingly implicating mindfulness in better relationship functioning, few pre-registered studies have explored how mindfulness interventions affect the sexual experiences of community-dwelling adults or whether such effects are moderated by intraindividual characteristics. The present study addressed these gaps by testing whether a mindfulness intervention affected the cognitive, affective, and behavioral aspects of sexual experiences and whether effects varied by attachment anxiety and avoidance. Inconsistent with expectation, mindfulness did not enhance sexual outcomes in general nor did it buffer more negative sexual experiences among the more anxiously attached. However, the mindfulness intervention did increase reports of positive sexuality among more anxious persons. Findings may reflect variation in the speed by which the different elements of mindfulness develop, greater psychological malleability among more anxious persons, and/or the fact that mindfulness training impacts processes more relevant to the buffering of attachment anxiety. Future research should replicate and extend this research so that more definitive conclusions regarding mindfulness’ role in relationships and sexuality, particularly among the more insecurely attached, can be found.

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Additional information

Funding

The research, authorship, and publication of this article was generously supported by a University of Auckland Doctoral Scholarship, given to the first author.