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Research Article

The development of crop production in the northern Horn of Africa: a review of the archaeobotanical evidence

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Received 26 Feb 2023, Accepted 30 Jan 2024, Published online: 22 Feb 2024
 

ABSTRACT

This article presents a synthesis of the hypotheses and evidence for plant domestication and the origins of agriculture in the northern Horn of Africa. To date, available archaeological data point to an introduction of agricultural practices to Ethiopia during the late Holocene, c. 1600 BC, influenced by adjacent areas including eastern Sudan, Egypt and southern Arabia. The archaeobotanical record shows that farming in the northern highlands was based on the cultivation of barley, linseed and lentils, combined with the exploitation of local wild grasses from the Panicoideae and Chloridoideae sub-families. This indicates that local populations also played a role in the development of productive activities in the region, a process that might have been in place before the arrival of the southwest Asian agricultural package. After the first millennium BC, amidst an increase in sedentary settlements in the region, new domesticated crops appeared in the archaeological record. These include exogenous crops such as emmer wheat, but also indigenous plants such as t’ef and noog, which were locally domesticated likely throughout the Pre-Aksumite period. With the rise of the Aksumite Kingdom, c. 50 BC – AD 700, the agricultural package again expanded to include of a wide range of pulses, geophytes and other economic crops. Macrobotanical remains of sorghum and finger millet also appear for the first time during this period, although this contrasts with the microbotanical record of the region, which points to an earlier presence. In the southern highlands and southwest Ethiopia, evidence of Plectranthus edulis (Vatke) Agnew (Ethiopian potato or Oromo potato) has been identified by the late first millennium BC, pointing towards an earlier domestication than previously considered. Similarly, enset and coffee remains have been documented during the early first millennium AD. Altogether, new studies are needed to confirm some of these hypotheses, as archaeobotanical studies in the northern Horn are still limited. The combination of macrobotanical and microbotanical data, along with ethnoarchaeological and experimental research programs and linguistic studies, will be of critical importance for refining our current understanding of the processes associated with plant domestication and the introduction of crop production in the region.

RÉSUMÉ

Cet article présente une synthèse des hypothèses et des données relatives à la domestication des plantes et aux origines de l’agriculture dans le nord de la Corne de l’Afrique. À l’état actuel, les données archéologiques indiquent une introduction de pratiques agricoles en Éthiopie à la fin de l’Holocène, c. 1600 avant J.-C., à travers l’influence de zones adjacentes, notamment l’est du Soudan, l’Égypte et le sud de l’Arabie. Les archives archéobotaniques démontrent que l’agriculture dans les hautes terres du nord était basée sur la culture de l’orge, du lin et des lentilles, combinée à l’exploitation d’herbes sauvages locales des sous-familles Panicoideae et Chloridoideae. Cela indique que les populations locales jouèrent également un rôle dans le développement d’activités productives dans la région, un processus possiblement en place avant l’arrivée de l’ensemble agricole d’Asie du Sud-Ouest. Après le premier millénaire avant J.-C., au moment d’une augmentation des établissements sédentaires dans la région, de nouvelles plantes domestiquées apparaissent dans les archives archéologiques. Il s’agit de cultures exogènes telles que le blé amidonnier, mais également de plantes indigènes telles que le t’ef et le noog qui furent domestiquées localement, sans doute tout au long de la période pré-aksoumite. Avec la montée du royaume aksoumite, de c. 50 avant J.-C. à 700 après J.-C., l’ensemble agricole s’est à nouveau élargi pour inclure une vaste gamme de légumineuses, de géophytes et d’autres cultures économiques. Des restes macrobotaniques de sorgho et d’éleusine apparaissent également pour la première fois au cours de cette période, bien que cela contraste avec les archives microbotaniques de la région, qui indiquent une présence antérieure. Dans les hautes terres du sud et dans le sud-ouest de l’Éthiopie, des restes de Plectranthus edulis (Vatke) Agnew (pomme de terre éthiopienne ou pomme de terre Oromo) sont identifiés à la fin du premier millénaire avant J.-C., indiquant une domestication plus précoce qu'on ne l'avait auparavant envisagé. De même, des restes d’ensete et de café ont été documentés au début du premier millénaire après J.-C. De nouvelles études sont nécessaires pour confirmer certaines de ces hypothèses, car les études archéobotaniques dans la Corne du Nord restent limitées. La combinaison des données macrobotaniques et microbotaniques, ainsi que des programmes de recherche ethnoarchéologiques et expérimentales et d’études linguistiques, seront d’une importance cruciale pour affiner notre compréhension des processus associés à la domestication des plantes et à l’introduction de la production végétale dans la région.

Acknowledgements

We wish to acknowledge the Authority for Research and Conservation of Cultural Heritage (ARCCH) for its promotion and supervision of archaeological research in Ethiopia. Many thanks are due to Dr Carla Lancelotti, Dr Catherine D’Andrea and one anonymous reviewer for their comments that significantly improved the manuscript. This work was supported by the Catalan Agency for Management of University and Research Grants under Grant AGAUR 2020 FISDU 00145 and the European Research Council (ERC-Stg 759800).

Notes

1 The terms ‘Hamitic’ and ‘Caucasoid’ refer to an obsolete racial classification based on the false theory of biological race (see the AAPA Statement on Race and Racism by Fuentes et al. Citation2019).

2 All radiocarbon dates reported here were recalibrated using OxCal 4.4. (Bronk Ramsey Citation2009) with the IntCal20 curve for the Northern Hemisphere by Reimer et al. (Citation2020).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Abel Ruiz-Giralt

Abel Ruiz-Giralt is a PhD candidate with the Culture, Archaeology and Socio-Ecological dynamics (CASEs) at Universitat Pompeu Fàbra in Barcelona. He is an anthropologist and archaeobotanist who applies wood charcoal, phytoliths and starch analyses to understand long-term plant exploitation in Tigrai (Ethiopia). He has worked on both wood exploitation for fuel use and grasses management and cultivation. He is also interested in developing mathematical and statistical models that combine Traditional Ecological Knowledge and laboratory analyses to improve our understanding of the archaeological record.

Alemseged Beldados

Alemseged Beldados is an Associate Professor in the Department of Archaeology and Heritage Management, Addis Ababa University. His research interests include human adaptation strategies in changing environmental conditions during the Pleistocene and Holocene epochs and the transition from hunting-gathering to early food production. His specialty in archaeobotany contributes to understanding the types of crops cultivated by early farming communities in the Horn of Africa. He is currently a Principal Investigator of the Konso Project (Human-Environment Relations) in Ethiopia.

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