The BBNJ Agreement: Through the Prism of Deep-Sea Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems

Abstract

On 19 June 2023, member States of the United Nations adopted, by consensus, the Agreement under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biological Diversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ Agreement). The BBNJ Agreement seeks to address one of the greatest challenges of the 21st century—managing our deep ocean environment, including its ecosystems and resources, in a way that does not lead to its long-term decline and maintains its potential to meet the needs of present and future generations. This article assesses the BBNJ Agreement through an analysis of its application to deep-sea vulnerable marine ecosystems (VMEs). As VMEs represent a key component of marine biodiversity and are particularly susceptible to anthropogenic disturbance, they provide a useful medium for undertaking a legal analysis of the provisions, rules, and procedures of the recently adopted instrument.

Keywords:

• biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction
• BBNJ
• vulnerable marine ecosystems
• hydrothermal vents
• seamounts
• cold-water corals
• law of the sea
• marine genetic resources
• area-based management tools
• marine protected areas
• environmental impact assessments
• capacity-building and technology transfer

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 Agreement under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction, UN Doc A/CONF.232/2023/4* (19 June 2023) (BBNJ Agreement).

2 UNGA Resolution 72/249 International Legally Binding Instrument Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biological Diversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction (24 December 2017) only mandated four sessions of the Intergovernmental Conference (IGC). However, as delegations were unable to reach consensus, the President of the IGC requested a fifth session.

3 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, opened for signature 10 December 1982, entered into force 16 November 1994, 1833 UNTS 397 (UNCLOS).

4 Lisa A. Levin, “Climate Change Impacts on Marine Biodiversity and Resilience” in Third International Symposium on Effects of Climate Change on the World’s Oceans (ICES CIEM, 25 March 2015) available at: https://www.ices.dk/news-and-events/news-archive/news/Pages/Biodiversity-Consequences-of-Climate-Change-in-the-Deep-Ocean-and-Sustainability-in-the-21st-Century.aspx (accessed 27 June 2023).

5 Sarah Louise Lothian, Marine Conservation and International Law: Legal Instruments for Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (Routledge, 2022), 26.

6 Jake Rice, “Synthesis of Part VI: Marine Biological Diversity and Habitats” in United Nations, The First Global Integrated Marine Assessment World Ocean Assessment I (Cambridge University Press, 2016), 917, 919.

7 UN Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea, “Marine Biological Diversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction” [29] available at: https://www.un.org/Depts/los/biodiversityworkinggroup/webpage_legal_and_policy.pdf? (accessed 27 June 2023).

8 Robin Warner, “Strengthening Governance Frameworks for Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biodiversity in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction: Southern Hemisphere Perspectives” (2017) 32 International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 607, 611.

9 Ibid.

10 Elisabeth Druel, Julien Rochette, Raphaël Billé et al, "A Long & Winding Road—International Discussions on the Governance of Marine Biodiversity in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction" (Study No. 07/13, IDDRI, September 2013) 1.

11 BBNJ Agreement, Art 2.

12 BBNJ Agreement, Art 3.

13 UNCLOS, Arts 86 and 87. This article uses nautical miles (NM), where 1 NM is 1.15 statute miles or 1852 m.

14 UNCLOS, Arts 1(1) and 76.

15 UNCLOS, Art 133(a).

16 Harriet Harden-Davies, “Deep-Sea Genetic Resources: New Frontiers for Science and Stewardship in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction” (2016) 137 Deep-Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography 504, 504.

17 Shigeru Deguchi, Hiroki Degaki, Ikuo Taniguchi et al, “Deep-Sea-Inspired Chemistry: A Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Bottom of the Ocean for Chemists” (2023) 39(23) Langmuir 7987, 7987.

18 IUCN, “Governing Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction” (March 2022, Issues Brief) available at: https://www.iucn.org/resources/issues-brief/governing-areas-beyond-national-jurisdiction (accessed 1 July 2023).

19 William J. Broad, The Universe Below: Discovering the Secrets of the Deep Sea, (Simon & Schuster, 1998), 21.

20 Ibid, 23.

21 Deguchi, Degaki, Taniguchi et al, note 17, 7987.

22 David Leary, International Law and the Genetic Resources of the Deep Sea (Martinus Nijhoff 2007), 14.

23 Ward Appeltans, Shane T. Ahyong, Gary Anderson et al, “The Magnitude of Global Marine Species Diversity” (2012) 22(23) Current Biology 2189, 2191.

24 Tullio Scovazzi, “The Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biodiversity, including Genetic Resources, in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction: A Legal Perspective” available at: http://www.un.org/Depts/los/consultative_process/ICP12_Presentations/Scovazzi_Presentation.pdf (accessed 29 June 2023) .

25 Eva Ramirez-Llodra, Timothy M. Shank and Christopher R. German, “Biodiversity and Biogeography of Hydrothermal Vent Species: Thirty Years of Discovery and Investigations” (2007) 20(1) Oceanography 30, 30.

26 Marjo Vierros, Charlotte Salpin, Claudio Chiarolla et al, “Emerging and Unresolved Issues: The Example of Marine Genetic Resources of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction” in Salvatore Arico (ed), Ocean Sustainability in 21st Century (Cambridge University Press & UNESCO, 2015), 200.

27 Cindy L. Van Dover, “Impacts of Anthropogenic Disturbances at Deep-sea Hydrothermal Vent Ecosystems: A Review” (2014) 102 Marine Environmental Research 59; Ed Yong, “Life Without Guts” The Atlantic, 14 November 2017 available at: https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2017/11/life-without-guts/545801 (accessed 1 August 2023).

28 Stace E. Beaulieu an d Kamil M. Szafrański, “InterRidge Global Database of Active Submarine Hydrothermal Vent Fields Version 3.4” (2020) PANGAEA available at: https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.917894; Yejian Wang, Xiqiu Han, Yadong Zhou et al, “The Daxi Vent Field: An Active Mafic-Hosted Hydrothermal System at a Non-Transform Offset on the Slow-Spreading Carlsberg Ridge, 6°48′N” (2021) 129 Ore Geology Review 103888. 

29 Naomi van der Most, Pei-Yuan Qian, Yan Gao et al, “Active Hydrothermal Vent Ecosystems in the Indian Ocean Are in Need of Protection” (2023) 9 Frontiers in Marine Science 1067912.

30 “Oases on the Ocean Floor,” WWF (webpage) available at: https://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?2593/Oases-on-the-ocean-floor (accessed 2 December 2023).

31 M. K. Tivey, “Hydrothermal Vent Systems” (1991) 34(4) Oceanus 68, 69; “Hydrothermal Vents,” Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (webpage) available at: https://www.whoi.edu/know-your-ocean/ocean-topics/seafloor-below/hydrothermal-vents (accessed 1 August 2023).

32 Aline Jaeckel, The International Seabed Authority and the Precautionary Principle (Brill Nijhoff, 2017), 9–10.

33 NOAA Ocean Exploration, “Hydrothermal Vent” available at: https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/edu/materials/hydrothermal-vents-fact-sheet.pdf (accessed 28 July 2023).

34 Joan M. Bernhard, Hidetaka Nomaki, Takashi Shiratori et al, “Hydrothermal Vent Chimney-Base Sediments as Unique Habitat for Meiobenthos and Nanobenthos: Observations on Millimetre-Scale Distributions” (2023) 9 Frontiers in Marine Science 1033381, 1.

35 Thomas Greiber, “Access and Benefit Sharing in Relation to Marine Genetic Resources from Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction A Possible Way Forward” (2011) Study in Preparation of the Informal Workshop on Conservation of Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction, Bonn, December 2011, BFN Research Project, 6 available at: https://www.bfn.de/sites/default/files/BfN/service/Dokumente/skripten/skript_301.pdf (accessed 16 July 2023).

36 Bernhard, Nomaki, Shiratori et al, note, 34.

37 Jaeckel, note 32, 10.

38 The collection and analysis of marine genetic resources essentially involves two activities, bioprospecting and marine scientific research. It is impossible to establish a clear-cut distinction between these activities as they are essentially indistinguishable at the point of sample collection. Thus, + the environmental impact of bioprospecting is indistinguishable from that of marine scientific research, as the former typically occurs in conjunction with the latter. The environmental impact of marine scientific research is likely to be minimal or non-existent. Thus, the environmental impact of bioprospecting is a hypothetical risk not yet established.

39 S. Gollner, A. Colaco, A. Gebruk et al, “Application of Scientific Criteria for Identifying Hydrothermal Ecosystems in Need of Protection” (2021) 132 Marine Policy 104641, 1.

40 Corinna Breusing, Shannon B. Johnson, Satoshi Mitarai et al, “Differential Patterns of Connectivity in Western Pacific Hydrothermal Vent Metapopulations: A Comparison of Biophysical and Genetic Models” (2023) 16(1) Evolutionary Applications 22, 23.

41 Ibid.

42 Marina Carreiro-Silva, Inês Martins, Virginie Riou et al, “Mechanical and Toxicological Effects of Deep-Sea Mining Sediment Plumes on a Habitat-Forming Cold Water Octocoral” (2022) 9 Frontiers in Marine Science 915650.

43 Gollner, Colaco, Gebruk et al, note 39, 2.

44 Convention on Biological Diversity, opened for signature 5 June 1992, entered into force 29 December 1993, 1760 UNTS 143.

45 Gollner, Colaco, Gebruk et al, note 39, 2.

46 David Edward Johnson, “Protecting the Lost City Hydrothermal Vent System: All Is Not Lost, or Is It?” (2019) 107 Marine Policy 103593, 1.

47 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, “What Is a Seamount?” (Webpage, 9 April 2020) available at: https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/seamounts.html (accessed 29 June 2023).

48 Keelin Bogart Ciccariello, “Bottom Trawling: A Goldilocks Approach to Evaluating the Right Level for Effective Regulation” (2023) 46(1) Suffolk Transnational Law Review 35, footnote 18; P. T. Harris, M. Macmillan-Lawler, J. Rupp et al, “Geomorphology of the Oceans” (2014) 352 Marine Geology 4, 22.

49 NOAA Ocean Exploration, “How Much of the Ocean Has Been Explored?” (NOAA Website, 2023) available at: https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/facts/explored.html#:∼:text=Currently%2C%20less%20than%20ten%20percent,been%20mapped%20with%20modern%20methods (accessed 1 August 2023).

50 Julie Gevorgian, David T. Sandwell, Yao Yu et al, “Global Distribution and Morphology of Small Seamounts” (2023) 10(4) Earth and Space Science 1, 2.

51 Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, “Seamounts” (Webpage) https://www.whoi.edu/main/topic/seamounts (accessed 27 June 2023); Morgan E. Visalli, Benjamin D. Best, Reniel B. Cabral et al, “Data-Driven Approach for Highlighting Priority Areas for Protection in Marine Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction” (2020) 122 Marine Policy 103927, 3.

52 Paul Wessel, “Seamount Characteristics” in Tony Pitcher, Telmo Morato, Paul J.B. Hart et al (eds), Seamounts: Ecology, Fisheries and Conservation (Blackwell Publishing, 2007), 3, 6.

53 Paul Voosen, “A ‘Mind Boggling’ 19,000 Seamounts Discovered” (2023) 380(6642) Science 226, 227.

54 Telmo Morato, Simon D. Hoyle, Valerie Allain et al, “Seamounts Are Hotspots of Pelagic Biodiversity in the Open Ocean” (2010) 107(21) Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the US of America 9707, 9709.

55 Christopher R. Kerry, Owen M. Exeter and Matthew J. Witt, “Monitoring Global Fishing Activity in Proximity to Seamounts Using Automatic Identification Systems” (2022) 23 Fish and Fisheries 733, 733.

56 Mukhisa Kituya and Peter Thomson, “90% of Fish Stocks Are Used Up—Fisheries Subsidies Must Stop Emptying The Ocean” World Economic Forum (13 July 2018) available at: http://www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/07/fish-stocks-are-used-up-fisheries-subsidies-must-stop (accessed 29 July 2023).

57 Savannah L. Goode, Ashley A. Rowden, David A. Bowden et al, “Resilience of Seamount Benthic Communities to Trawling Disturbance” (2020) 161 Marine Environmental Research 105086 1, 1.

58 Ibid.

59 Kathryn A. Miller, Kirsten F. Thompson, Paul Johnston et al, “An Overview of Seabed Mining Including the Current State of Development, Environmental Impacts and Knowledge Gaps” (2018) 4 Frontiers in Marine Science article 418, 1, 4.

60 Lisa A Levin, Kathryn Mengerink, Kristina M. Gjerde et al, “Defining “Serious Harm” to the Marine Environment” (2016) 74 Marine Policy 245, 251.

61 Kirsten F. Thompson, Kathryn A. Miller, Jake Wacker et al, “Urgent Assessment Needed to Evaluate Potential Impacts on Cetaceans From Deep Seabed Mining” (2023) 10 Frontiers in Marine Science 10:1095930. doi:10.3389/fmars.2023.1095930, 5.

62 United Nations Secretary General, Oceans and the Law of the Sea—Report of the Secretary-General, UN Doc A/60/63/Add.1 (15 July 2005) 8.

63 Sebastian J. Hennige, Uwe Wolfram, Leslie Wickes et al, “Crumbling Reefs and Cold-Water Coral Habitat Loss in a Future Ocean: Evidence of ‘Coralporosis’ as an Indicator of Habitat Integrity” (2020) 7 Frontiers in Marine Science article 668, 1, 2.

64 Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, “Ocean Portal Find Your Blue, The Ocean Portal Team, ‘Deep-Sea Corals’” http://ocean.si.edu/deep-sea-corals (accessed 1 August 2023).

65 Levin, Mengerink, Gjerde et al, note 60, 254.

66 Malcolm R. Clark, D. Tittensor, A. D. Rogers et al, “Seamounts, Deep-Sea Corals and Fisheries: Vulnerability of Deep-Sea Corals to Fishing on Seamounts Beyond Areas of National Jurisdiction” (2006) UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK, 7.

67 Janina V. Büscher, Armin U. Form and Ulf Riebesell, “Interactive Effects of Ocean Acidification and Warming on Growth, Fitness and Survival of the Cold-Water Coral Lophelia pertusa under Different Food Availabilities” (2017) 4 Frontiers in Marine Science article 101, 1, 1.

68 Hanna Sundahl, Pål Buhl-Mortensen and Lene Buhl-Mortensen, “Distribution and Suitable Habitat of the Cold-Water Corals Lophelia pertusa, Paraggorgia arborea, and Primnoa resedaeformis on the Norwegian Continental Shelf” (2020) 7 Frontiers in Marine Science article 213, 1, 2.

69 Rodrigo da Costa Portilho-Ramos, Jürgen Titschack, Claudia Wienberg et al, “Major Environmental Drivers Determining Life and Death of Cold-Water Corals Through Time” (2022) 20(5) PLoS Biology e3001628, 1, 1.

70 Malcolm R Clark, “The Impacts of Deep Sea Fisheries on Benthic Communities: A Review” (2016) 73 ICES Journal of Marine Science Supplement 1, i51–i69.

71 James A. Strong, Nils Piechaud, Laurence H. De Clippele et al, “Recovery and Restoration Potential of Cold-Water Corals: Experience from a Deep-Sea Marine Protected Area” (2023) Restoration Ecology 1, 2.

72 Jake Rice, “Synthesis of Part VI: Marine Biological Diversity and Habitats” in United Nations, First Global Integrated Marine Assessment (World Ocean Assessment I), (United Nations, 2016), 2.

73 Sundahl, Buhl-Mortensen and Buhl-Mortensen, note 68, 2.

74 United Nations Secretary General, Oceans and the Law of the Sea—Report of the Secretary-General, UN Doc A/64/66/Add.2 (19 October 2009) [98].

75 Büscher, Form and Riebesell, note 67, 1.

76 Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection and Advisory Committee on Protection of the Sea, “A Sea of Troubles” (2001) Rep. Stud. GESAMP No. 70, 35.

77 Ibid, 2.

78 Nilufer Oral, “Protection of Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction: Can International Law Meet the Challenge?” in Anastasia Strati, Maria Gavouneli and Nikolaos Skourtos (eds), Unresolved Issues and New Challenges to the Law of the Sea: Time Before and Time After (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2006), vol 54, 87.

79 Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable Development, UN Doc. A/CONF.199/20 (September 2002) [32(a)].

80 United Nations Secretary General, Oceans and the Law of the Sea, Report of the Secretary General, UN Doc. A/58/65 (3 March 2003) [172] referring to Report on the Work of the United Nations Open-ended Informal Consultative Process Established by the General Assembly in its Resolution 54/33 in Order to Facilitate the Annual Review by the Assembly of Developments In Ocean Affairs at Its Third Meeting, UN Doc. A/57/80 (2 July 2002) [20].

81 Ibid, [176]. United Nations Secretary General, Oceans and the Law of the Sea, Report of the Secretary General, UN Doc A/61/163 Add.1, note 44.

82 United Nations Secretary General, Oceans and the Law of the Sea, Report of the Secretary General, UN Doc. A/58/65 (3 March 2003) [172].

83 United Nations Secretary General, Oceans and the Law of the Sea—Report of the Secretary-General, UN Doc A/60/63/Add.1 (15 July 2005) 59.

84 James Harrison, Terje Lobach, Elisa Morgera et al, “Review and Analysis of International Legal and Policy Instruments Related to Deep-Sea Fisheries and Biodiversity Conservation in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction” (FAO, Rome, 2017) 2.

85 United Nations Secretary General, Oceans and the Law of the Sea—Report of the Secretary-General, UN Doc A/64/66/Add.2 (19 October 2009) 17.

86 Sustainable Fisheries, Including Through the 1995 Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 Relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, and Related Instruments, GA Res 61/105, UN Doc A/RES/61/105 (6 March 2007) [89] and [90].

87 FAO, International Guidelines for the Management of Deep-Sea Fisheries in the High Seas (FAO, 2009) (DSF Guidelines).

88 The criteria in the DSF Guidelines has been endorsed in Sustainable Fisheries, Including Through the 1995 Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 Relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, and Related Instruments, GA Res 64/72, UN Doc A/RES/64/72 (19 March 2010).

89 DSF Guidelines, note 87, 4.

90 Ibid, 21.

91 Les Watling and Peter J. Auster, “Seamounts on the High Seas Should Be Managed as Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems” (2017) 4 Frontiers in Marine Science article 14, 2.

92 B. Kuemlangan, J. Sanders, P. Deupmann et al, “Integrative Policy and Legal Instruments, Approaches and Tools: Fisheries and Biodiversity Conservation” in Serge M Garcia, Jake Rice and Anthony Charles, Governance of Marine Fisheries and Biodiversity Conservation: Interaction and Coevolution, (Wiley-Blackwell, 2014), 175.

93 DSF Guidelines, note 87, 4, [17].

94 Watling and Auster, note 91, 2.

95 Ibid.

96 Julian M. Burgos, Lene Buhl-Mortensen, Pål Buhl-Mortensen et al, “Predicting the Distribution of Indicator Taxa of Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems in the Arctic and Sub-arctic Waters of the Nordic Seas” (2020) 7 Frontiers in Marine Science article 131, 1, 2.

97 Watling and Auster, note 91.

98 Les Watling, “Seamounts ARE Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems” (29 July 2016, Marine Conservation Institute) available at: https://marine-conservation.org/on-the-tide/vme (accessed 1 August 2023).

99 Vienna Saccomanno, “Seamounts are Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems” (30 August 2016, National Geographic Ocean Views Blog) available at: https://highseasalliance.org/2016/08/30/seamounts-are-vulnerable-marine-ecosystems (accessed 2 December 2023).

100 Ibid.

101 Regulation (EC) No 734/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 July 2008 on the Protection of Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems in the High Seas From the Adverse Impacts of Bottom Fishing Gears [2008] OJ L 201/8 (Recital 2).

102 BBNJ Agreement, Art 27(b).

103 BBNJ Agreement, Art 31(d)(i).

104 BBNJ Agreement, Art 34(2). The significant adverse impacts threshold is also found in Article 37 of the BBNJ Agreement with respect to the review of authorized activities and their impacts.

105 BBNJ Agreement, Art 38.

106 Lothian, note 5, 215.

107 DSF Guidelines, note 87, 4–5 [18].

108 Lothian, note 5, 215.

109 BBNJ Agreement, Art 29(3).

110 BBNJ Agreement, Art 29(1).

111 Susanne J. Lockhart and John Hocevar, “Combined Abundance of All Vulnerable Marine Ecosystem Indicator Taxa Inadequate, as Sole Determiner of Vulnerability, Antarctic Peninsula” (2021) 8 Frontiers in Marine Science article 577761, 2; Keith Reid, “Conserving Antarctica from the Bottom Up: Implementing UN General Assembly Resolution 61/105 in the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources” (2011) 25 Ocean Yearbook 131.

112 CCAMLR Conservation Measure 22-07 (2013), Interim Measure for Bottom Fishing Activities Subject to Conservation Measure 22-06 Encountering Potential Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems in the Convention Area.

113 CCAMLR VME Taxa Classification Guide 2009 available at: https://www.ccamlr.org/en/system/files/VME-guide.pdf (accessed 16 October 2023).

114 FAO, “Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems Database—CCAMLR Convention Areas” https://www.fao.org/fishery/en/vmeregulatory/vme_ccamlr_regulatory/2021 (accessed 16 October 2023).

115 A VME indicator unit means either one liter of those VME indicator organisms that can be placed in a 10-liter container, or one kilogram of those VME indicator organisms that do not fit into a 10-litre container—CCAMLR Conservation Measures 22-07 (2013) 2(iii),

116 CCAMLR Conservation Measure 22-07 (2013) (5).

117 CCAMLR Conservation Measure 22-07 (2013) (4), (6), and (9).

118 FAO, “Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems Database—CCAMLR Convention Areas,” note 114.

119 Lockhart and Hocevar, note 111, 2.

120 BBNJ Agreement, Art 51.

121 E. Ramirez-Llodra, A. Brandt, R. Danovaro et al, "Deep, Diverse and Definitely Diffferent: Unique Attributes of the World’s Largest Ecosystem" (2010) 7 Biogeosciences 2851.

122 A. Hemmings and M. Rogan-Finnemore, "Access, Obligations, and Benefits: Regulating Bioprospecting in the Antarctic" in M. Jeffery, J. + Firestone and K. Bubna-Litic (eds), Biodiversity Conservation, Law and Livelihoods: Bridging the North-South Divide (Cambridge University Press, 2008), 530.

123 Jessica Wimmer and William Martin, “Likely Energy Source Behind First Life on Earth Found ‘Hiding in Plain Sight’” (Frontiers Science News, 19 January 2022) available at: https://blog.frontiersin.org/2022/01/19/frontiers-microbiology-origin-of-life-energy-hydrothermal-vents (accessed 29 July 2023).

124 Deep-Ocean Stewardship Initiative (DOSI), "Deep-Sea Marine Scientific Research and Genetic Resources in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction: Submission" (22 March 2016) 2 available at: http://dosi-project.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/COMBINED_DOSI_DeepSeaGeneticResources_PrepComSubmission_Surveyresults.pdf (accessed 27 June 2023).

125 Elisa Morgera, "Fair and Equitable Benefit-Sharing in a New Treaty on Marine Biodiversity: A Principles Approach Towards Partnership Building?" (2018) 5 Maritime Safety and Security Law Journal 49, 49.

126 Arianna Broggiato, Sophie Arnaud-Haond, Claudio Chiarolla et al, "Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits From the Utilization of Marine Genetic Resources in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction: Bridging the Gaps Between Science and Policy" (2014) 49 Marine Policy 176.

127 Jesus M. Arrieta, Sophie Arnaud-Haond and Carlos M. Duarte, "What Lies Underneath: Conserving the Ocean’s Genetic Resources" (2010) 107(43) Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 18318, 18323.

128 Robin Warner, Protecting the Oceans Beyond National Jurisdiction: Strengthening the International Law Framework (Martinus Nijhoff, 2009), 21.

129 UNCLOS, Preamble, [4].

130 BBNJ Agreement, Art 1(8).

131 Sarah Lothian, “How Does the New BBNJ Agreement Regulate Access to and Benefit-Sharing of Marine Genetic Resources at Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vents?” (ECOLAW Blog, The blog of the Environmental, Climate and Oceans Law (ECO Law) research group of the School of Law, University of Edinburgh, 1 June 2023) available at: https://blogs.ed.ac.uk/ecolaw/2023/06/01/how-does-the-new-bbnj-agreement-regulate-access-to-and-benefit-sharing-of-marine-genetic-resources-at-deep-sea-hydrothermal-vents (accessed 29 June 2023).

132 Louise Angelique de La Fayette, "A New Regime for the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biodiversity and Genetic Resources Beyond the Limits of National Jurisdiction" (2009) 24 International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 221.

133 BBNJ Agreement, Art 10(2)(b); see definitions of “biotechnology” Art 1(3) and “utilization” Art 1(14).

134 BBNJ Agreement, Art 12(1).

135 BBNJ Agreement, Art 12(2).

136 BBNJ Agreement, Art 12(2)(a)–(j).

137 Arianna Broggiato, Thomas Vanagt, Laura E. Lallier et al, "Mare Geneticum: Balancing Governance of Marine Genetic Resources in International Waters" (2018) 33 International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 3, 30 .

138 There are no known cases of sampling by bioprospectors or commercial entities. All known cases of sampling have been undertaken by scientific research organizations, and biotechnology companies have subsequently relied upon and used the samples taken by scientific research organizations in product development.

139 BBNJ Agreement, Art 12(2)(j).

140 InterRidge, "InterRidge Statement of Commitment to Responsible Research Practices at Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vents" http://194.254.225.67/files/interridge/IR_Statement_flier_1.pdf (accessed 27 June 2023).

141 OSPAR Code of Conduct for Responsible Marine Research in the Deep Seas and High Seas of the OSPAR Maritime Area, OSPAR 08/24/1, Annex 6.

142 BBNJ Agreement, Art 15(3)(a).

143 DOSI, note 124, 4. See, for example, InterRidge, note 140, [6], and OSPAR Code of Conduct, note 141, [21].

144 OSPAR Code of Conduct, note 141, [13] and [15].

145 Ibid, [15] and [19].

146 BBNJ Agreement, Art 12(5).

147 BBNJ Agreement, Art 12(5)(b).

148 BBNJ Agreement, Art 12(6).

149 BBNJ Agreement, Art 12(8).

150 BBNJ Agreement, Art 14(3).

151 David Leary and S. Kim Juniper, "Addressing the Marine Genetic Resources Issue: Is the Debate Heading in the Wrong Direction?" in Clive Schofield, Seokwoo Lee and Moon-Sang Kwon (eds), The Limits of Maritime Jurisdiction (Koninklijke Brill, 2014), 773.

152 Ibid.

153 BBNJ Agreement, Art 14.

154 BBNJ Agreement, Art 14(7).

155 Ibid.

156 Lothian, note 5, 137.

157 Morgera, note 125, 49.

158 BBNJ Agreement, Art 17(a).

159 CBD, Decision Adopted by the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity at Its Fifteenth Meeting. Kunming–Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, CBD/COP/DEC/15/4 (19 December 2022).

160 BBNJ Agreement, Art 17(c).

161 BBNJ Agreement, Art 19(1).

162 BBNJ Agreement, Art 19(2).

163 BBNJ Agreement, Art 19(3).

164 CBD, Art 2.

165 Charley Gros, Jan Jansen, Piers K. Dunstan et al, “Vulnerable, but Still Poorly Known, Marine Ecosystems: How to Make Distribution Models More Relevant and Impactful for Conservation and Management of VMEs” (2022) 9 Frontiers in Marine Science article 870145, 1, 2.

166 BBNJ Agreement, Art 19(4)(a)–(j).

167 BBNJ Agreement, Art 19(4)(h) and (i).

168 ISA, Decision of the Council of the International Seabed Authority Relating to the Review of the Environmental Management Plan for the Clarion-Clipperton Zone ISBA 26/C/58 (10 December 2021); ISA, Decision of the Council Relating to an Environmental Management Plan for the Clarion-Clipperton Zone ISBA/18/C/22 (26 July 2012); Michael Lodge, David Johnson, Gwenaëlle Le Gurun et al, “Seabed Mining: International Seabed Authority Environmental Management Plan for the Clarion-Clipperton Zone: A Partnership Approach” (2014) 49 Marine Policy 66.

169 David Freestone and Viva Harris, “Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction: Time to Chart a New Course?” in Myron H. Nordquist, John Norton Moore and Ronán Long (eds), International Marine Economy: Law and Policy (Koninklijke Brill NV, 2017), vol 20, 322, 334–335.

170 Glen Wright, Jeff Ardron, Kristina Gjerde et al, “Advancing Marine Biodiversity Protection Through Regional Fisheries Management: A Review of High Seas Bottom Fisheries Closures” (IDDRI Working Paper, No 14/14 October 2014) 10.

171 South East Atlantic Fisheries Organisation (SEAFO) website available at: http://www.seafo.org/Management/VME-Protection (accessed 14 October 2023).

172 See Revised Guidelines for the Identification and Designation of Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas, IMO Assembly Doc A24/Res/982 (1 December 2005); International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, as modified by the Protocol 1978 relating thereto, opened for signature 2 November 1973, entered into force 12 October 1984, 1340 UNTS 61 (MARPOL) Annexes I–V.

173 "PrepCom 1 Conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity of ABNJ" (Policy brief, IMO) 3 https://www.un.org/depts/los/biodiversity/prepcom_files/IMO_Policy_Brief_BBNJ_PrepCom_1.pdf (accessed 27 June 2023) (“IMO Policy Brief”).

174 Lothian, note 5, 178.

175 D. Tladi, “Ocean Governance: A Fragmented Regulatory Framework” in P. Jacquet, R. Pachauri and L. Tubiana (eds), Oceans: The New Frontier—A Planet for Life (The Energy and Resources Institute Press, 2011), 99, 101.

176 Elisabeth Druel, Kristina Gjerde, Duncan Currie et al, “Paper VI—Options and Approaches for Establishing and Managing Marine Protected Areas in ABNJ” in An International Instrument on Conservation and Sustainable Use of Biodiversity in Marine Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction Exploring Different Elements to Consider (Series of Policy Briefs on Scope, Parameters and Feasibility, IUCN, 2003), 39.

177 BBNJ Agreement, Art 17(b).

178 BBNJ Agreement, Arts 5(2), 22(2) and (3).

179 Marcus Haward, “Biodiversity in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ): the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) and the United Nations BBNJ Agreement” (2021) 11(2) Polar Journal 303, 307.

180 Ibid.

181 Lothian, note 5, 181.

182 Ibid, 181–182.

183 Vito De Lucia, "Reflecting on the meaning of “not undermining” ahead of IGC-2" on The Blog of the Norwegian Centre for the Law of the Sea (21 March 2019) available at: https://site.uit.no/nclos/2019/03/21/reflecting-on-the-meaning-of-not-undermining-ahead-of-igc-2 (accessed 28 June 2023) referring to Zoe Scanlon, "The Art of “Not Undermining”: Possibilities Within Existing Architecture to Improve Environmental Protections in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction" (2018) 75 ICES Journal of Marine Science 405.

184 BBNJ Agreement, Art 21(8).

185 BBNJ Agreement, Art 19(4)(a)–(b) and Annex I.

186 Lothian, note 5, 191–192.

187 Thomas B Smith, Salit Kark, Christopher J. Schneider et al, “Biodiversity Hotspots and Beyond: The Need for Preserving Environmental Transitions” (2001) 16(8) Trends in Ecology and Evolution 431, 431.

188 Druel, Rochette and Billé, note 10, 18.

189 BBNJ Agreement, Art 27 (a) and (b).

190 Letter dated 15 May 2008 from the Co-Chairpersons of the Ad Hoc Open-ended Informal Working Group to study issues relating to the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity beyond areas of national jurisdiction addressed to the President of the General Assembly, UN Doc. A/63/79 (16 May 2008) 5 available at: https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N08/344/16/PDF/N0834416.pdf?OpenElement (accessed 28 June 2023).

191 Ibid.

192 High Seas Alliance, “How Could the EIA Provisions of the BBNJ Agreement Apply to Activities and Existing Bodies?” (July 2021) available at: https://www.highseasalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/FINAL-How-would-the-EIA-provisions-of-the-BBNJ-Treaty-apply-in-practice-7.8.21.pdf (accessed 27 June 2023).

193 BBNJ Agreement, Art 29.

194 Article 29 also provides that the BBNJ COP will develop mechanisms for the STB to collaborate with relevant legal instruments, frameworks and global, regional, subregional, and sectoral bodies that regulate activities in ABNJ, however, this again will ultimately come down to the extent to which these bodies are open and willing to collaborate.

195 BBNJ Agreement, Art 38.

196 Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, opened for signature 4 October 1991, entered into force 14 January 1998, (1991) 30 ILM 146 (Madrid Protocol).

197 Timothy J. Ensminger, Lance N. McCold and J. Warren Webb, “Environmental Impact Assessment under the National Environmental Policy Act and the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty” (1999) 24(1) Environmental Management 13, 13 and 19.

198 BBNJ Agreement, Art 30(2).

199 CBD, Marine and Coastal Biodiversity: Revised Voluntary Guidelines for the Consideration of Biodiversity in Environmental Impact Assessments and Strategic Environmental Assessments in Marine and Coastal Areas + UNEP/CBD/COP/11/23 (21 August 2012) annex ("Voluntary Guidelines for the Consideration of Biodiversity in Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) in Marine and Coastal Areas") (21 August 2012) UNEP/CBD/COP/11/23, 7 [10(b)].

200 Ibid, 7 [10(a)].

201 Nadine Le Bris, Sophie Arnaud-Haond, Stace Beaulieu et al, “Hydrothermal Vents and Cold Seeps” in The First Global Integrated Marine Assessment: World Ocean Assessment I, Group of Experts of the Regular Process (Office of the United Nations (Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea), 2016), 6.

202 Lothian, note 5, 218.

203 Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) on behalf of the High Seas Alliance, "Intervention on EIAs" (11 September 2018) 2 available at: http://www.highseasalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/4.-NRDC-on-behalf-of-the-High-Seas-Alliance-Intervention-on-EIAs-.pdf (accessed 29 June 2023).

204 Australian submission to the Preparatory Committee on Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biological Diversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction (6 December 2016) 7.

205 Luis Valdés (ed), Global Ocean Science Report—The Current Status of Ocean Science Around the World (Report, IOC-UNESCO, 2017), 24.

206 Harriet Harden-Davies and Paul Snelgrove, “Science Collaboration for Capacity Building: Advancing Technology Transfer Through a Treaty for Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction” (2020) 7(40) Frontiers in Marine Science article 40, 1, 1.

207 Lothian, note 5, 239.

208 Ibid, 244,

209 Colin M. Alberts, "Technology Transfer and Its Role in International Environmental Law: A Structural Dilemma" (1992) 6 Harvard Journal of Law & Technology 63, 72.

210 Lothian, note 5, 240.

211 BBNJ Agreement, Art 41(1).

212 BBNJ Agreement, Art 41(2).

213 BBNJ Agreement, Art 40(e).

214 Salvatore Arico and Charlotte Salpin, “Bioprospecting of Genetic Resources in the Deep Seabed: Scientific, Legal and Policy Aspects” (UNU-IAS, 2005) 53.

215 Biliana Cicin-Sain, Marjo Vierros, Miriam Balgos et al, “Capacity Development as a Key Aspect of a New International Agreement on Marine Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ)” (Policy Brief, August 2018) 3.

216 BBNJ Agreement, Art 44 and Annex II.

217 Elisa Morgera and Mara Ntona, "Seize the Moment: Towards Fairer Capacity Building and Marine Technology Transfer" (Briefing Paper, IIED, August 2018) + available at: <https://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/17479IIED.pdf (accessed 27 June 2023).

218 BBNJ Agreement, Art 51.

219 BBNJ Agreement, Art 51(2).

220 BBNJ Agreement, Art 51(3).

221 Article 51(4) states that the Clearing-House Mechanism will be managed by the Secretariat, without prejudice to possible cooperation with other relevant legal instruments, frameworks, and bodies, as determined by the COP, including the IOC-UNESCO, the ISA, the IMO, and the FAO.

222 Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems Database available at: https://www.fao.org/in-action/vulnerable-marine-ecosystems/en (accessed 14 October 2023).

223 CCAMLR VME Registry available at: https://www.ccamlr.org/en/document/data/ccamlr-vme-registry (accessed 15 October 2023). The CCAMLR VME Registry records the locations and taxa of VMEs and associated areas in the Convention Area as described in the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources that have been notified under Conservation Measure 22-06 and Conservation Measure 22-07.

224 Ocean Biodiversity Information System available at: https://obis.org (accessed 1 August 2023).

225 Berta Ramiro-Sánchez, Lee-Anne Henry, Telmo Morato et al, Compilation of Records of Vulnerable Marine Ecosystem Indicator Taxa in the North Atlantic (2020) PANGAEA, available at: https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.920658 (accessed 1 August 2023).

226 NOAA Deep-Sea Coral Data Portal available at: https://deepseacoraldata.noaa.gov (accessed 1 August 2023).

227 InterRidge Vents Online Database available at: https://vents-data.interridge.org (accessed 1 August 2023).

228 United Nations Secretary General, Oceans and the Law of the Sea—Report of the Secretary-General, UN Doc A/62/66/Add.2 (10 September 2007) 69.

229 Sarah Lothian, “Australia at the BBNJ Negotiations and Its Potential Role in the Concluding Stages” (2022) 7(1) Asia-Pacific Journal of Ocean Law and Policy 5, 8.

230 Ibid.

231 Haward, note 179, 207.

232 Letter dated 15 May 2008 from the Co-Chairpersons of the Ad Hoc Open-ended Informal Working Group UN Doc. A/63/79, + note 176, 5.

233 Le Bris, Arnaud-Haond, Beaulieu et al, note 201.