Abstract
Frequently used protective items during the pandemics are prepared from plastics products, such as polypropylene, polyurethane, polyacrylonitrile, polystyrene, polycarbonate, polyethylene, and polyester. Globally more than 57 million pounds of personal protective equipment along with other biomedical plastic waste are entering into the oceans per annum. Lots of economic benefits can be obtained by recycling the polymeric wastes by converting them into useful products through, reduced manufacture cost, bio converted products, and cleaner environment by developing a circular waste management model. Personal protective equipment’s are prepared from different plastic products and the outer most surface of these free-floating plastics presents in the aquatic environment serve as colonization support to diverse microbial populations known as plastisphere. Microbial colonization starts with an initial attachment under different environmental conditions, subsequently by developing a permanent association on the plastic surface. The community structure of microorganisms in the plastisphere can be significantly influenced by the depth of water in the aquatic ecosystem where microplastics present and the nutrients availability. As microorganisms have been deeply investigated for their role in the biodegradation of several pollutants, the present review article focuses on microbial diversity on plastisphere in the aquatic ecosystem, the underlying mechanism of colonization, and their potential role in microplastic degradation. This review article also highlights on imminent research for sustainable management of aquatic microplastic pollution.
Introduction
While the world is trying to control the spread of viral transmission by following several precautionary measures, this deadly global disease is generating a massive amount of bio-medical hazardous waste that needs special treatment and waste management for disposal. During 2020, the United Nations has distributed ∼6.5 million gloves, near about 2 million surgical masks, and millions of other PPE kits to various countries throughout the globe. The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) has approximations that by the end of this year the requirements could reach up to millions to billions of different categories of personal protective equipment. In India currently, 4 million health workers are fighting against diverse transmitted diseases including Covid −19 needing an estimated 2.5 million units of PPE every day. To dispose of these biomedical wastes generated from different hospitals and quarantine centers during handling patients, the World Health Organization (WHO) specified some guidelines on how to dispose of these wastes and to evade the contaminations from them. Unfortunately, this pandemic has increased the consumption of PPE kit which includes disposable face masks and face shields, single used gloves, gowns, head cover, etc. The production of the protective products globally has risen to millions sand billions as people are regularly using and discarding them. It is now becoming a budding environmental challenge by leaving a large number of plastics in the environment. These biomedical wastes came into the contact with various small water channels which led them to reach the rivers and then accumulating in the oceans, along with other anthropogenic pollutants adding a considerable amount to the existing plastic concentration and other pollutants to the aquatic environment. Fadare and Okoffo (Citation2020) collected many face masks from highway and drainages in Ile-Ife, Nigeria. These shreds of evidence confirmed that the occurrence of these PPE kits in both aquatic and terrestrial environment acts as an emerging environmental waste; and demonstrate that, this universal pandemic has tremendously increased the plastic pollution in the environment by any means (Schnurr et al. Citation2018). Most of the plastics that we regularly use in our everyday life, such as packaged products, water bottle, and food packets, etc. are considered as a major leading contributor of both plastic and microplastic pollution in the environment worldwide (Das et al. Citation2011; Fadare et al. Citation2020). In the same way, single-use face masks, gloves, gowns, and head cover which are discarded in the environment in landfills, public places, and freshwater systems which later comes into the ocean, break down under natural conditions into smaller-to-smaller particles (<5 mm) of plastic fibers providing a rising source of microplastic fiber pollution (Mishra et al. Citation2019, Citation2020).
Approximately 80% of marine plastic litters mainly come from the terrestrial regions, dumped into the ocean by illegal dumping, seashore-tourism, and improper management of waste, or indirectly through rivers, municipal drainage system, or discharged from city sewage. Similarly, World Wild Fund (WWF) estimated that ∼570,000 tons of plastic are released into the Mediterranean seas every year which was calculated as equal to the discarding 33,800 plastic bottles in each minute in the maritime (World Wildlife Fund Report Citation2019). The increasing consumption of PPE kits mainly face masks and gloves, used to manage the spread of corona virus, is fueling the plastic pollution intimidating the health of both oceanic and aquatic life (Amaral-Zettler et al. Citation2020; Das et al. Citation2021; Koteswara and Kiran Citation2019; Mishra et al. Citation2018, Citation2022c; Mishra and Das Citation2022). Conversely, very little data has been reported still on the fate of waste generated from hospitals, but the subjective evidence proliferates. From all over the world, many environmental activities and organizations are now getting a lot of used face masks, gloves, and empty hand sanitizer bottles far and wide remote areas. Marine Plastic pollution associated with other anthropogenic contaminants has become one of the most persistent environmental problems (Mohanty et al. Citation2017, Citation2018; Ghosh and Das Citation2017). Subsequently, effective control measures need to be employed for significant environmental and human health benefits (Das et al. Citation2015a, Citation2015b; Das and Mishra Citation2008). An ecofriendly approach to reducing the global environmental pollution and its negative impact on the environment is the pressing need of the time (Das and Bissoyi Citation2011; Das and Singh Citation2011; Mishra et al. Citation2023).
Practically, plastic pollution in the ocean is not a piece of good news; even though PPE pollution presenting a different level of threat or challenge to the marine flora and fauna. Every floating item in the sea has the tendency to fascinate marine life, and marine plastic and microplastics wastes are the same. Microorganisms including bacteria, archaea, algae, fungi, and other unicellular species congregate and colonize on plastic objects floating in water. These assemblages of microorganisms growing on the plastic surface are termed as ‘plastisphere’ (Bakker et al. Citation2003; Jacquin et al. Citation2019; Mishra et al. Citation2022a, Citation2022b; Tripathy et al. Citation2022). It consists of the communities of microorganisms inhabiting by colonization on microplastic pollutants or plastic Marine Debris (PMD). Plastisphere mainly consists of ecological unit that have developed on plastic environment created by anthropogenic activities (Bal et al. Citation2017, Citation2022; Bal and Das Citation2020; Miao et al. Citation2019; Mishra and Das Citation2021).
Microbial enzymes work to degrade biological materials. Organic compounds, like carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur, are broken down into simpler organic compounds by biodegradation. These compounds are then mineralized and distributed in basic cycles. This process also produces CH4, CO2, and cellular components from microorganisms. In nature, the degradation of microplastics involves both physicochemical and microbial factors. Microorganisms have the capacity to degrade a variety of substances, including microplastics, and can adapt to almost any environment (Krueger et al. Citation2015). Microorganisms can therefore be used in bioremediation without having a negative impact. However, a lack of understanding regarding the interactions between microbes and microplastics prevents the use of plastic biodegradation techniques on a larger scale (Alshehrei Citation2017).
Furthermore, there is a menace of chemical contagion as the plastic materials fragmentized into smaller particles called as microplastics and discharge harmful chemicals, heavy metals, and oils in the body of an animal which ingested it, including humans also (Mishra et al. Citation2019, Citation2021a, Citation2021b; Singh et al. Citation2020). Contaminated manmade industrial waste (Das and Mishra Citation2008) along with biomedical wastes can transmit to the aquatic organisms and ultimately to the human (Kumar and Das Citation2016, Citation2017; Bal et al. Citation2019). Microplastics can be consumed by small fish and other aquatic animals inadvertently. The dangerous fate of the plastisphere including harmful microbial diversity and the plastic surface could lift an impending threat of human contamination and transmission (Mishra et al. Citation2021a, Citation2021b).
The primary aim of the present review is to significantly assess the aquatic microbial diversity plastic surface, formation of plastispheres, microbial colonization on these plastisphere, and potential mechanism of microbial assisted aquatic microplastic degradation. The concluding recommendations also discussed future challenges and prospects.
Biomedical generated plastic waste as global emerging pollutant
The continuing pandemic situation is considered as a universal health emergency spreading the disease speedily across countries through human-to-human transmission via respiratory droplets or cough, body fluid, and infected surfaces (Chan et al. Citation2020). To counter this fast contamination of viral infections, WHO declared the use of PPE kit especially face cover and hand gloves all over the world, as the presence of virus could in the air or the surfaces. PPE kit includes face cover, gloves, head cover, apron, and boots; which is mainly used to avoid the exposure to pathogens and contaminants. Without these things, health workers, essential workers, and the public are exposed to a high chance of infection. When billions of general publics started wearing single-use PPE kit daily to take protective measures against Covid-19; which sparked a scarcity of these protective equipment’s. In this scenario, the production of the plastic-based PPE kits and the hand sanitizers has been increased drastically. For instance, from the global market reports on the manufacture of PPE, it has been calculated that the production valued approximately USD 40 billion, which will rise to USD 58 billion in 2022 with an annual increase of 6.5%. Similarly, WHO anticipated that an increase of about 40% of PPE equipment production monthly will help to deal efficiently with Covid −19 outbreak (WHO Citation2020a). On the other hand, it is expected that a significant decrease in the demand for PPE will not arise during the post-pandemic situations either, with a 20% projected annual growth in the facial and medical masks stocks between 2020 and 2025 (PPE Market 2015). Due to the increased manufacture and distribution of this PPE in the market; consumption increased at a massive level by the general public which leads to unhealthy disposal of the waste generated from this equipment (WHO Citation2020b). As a result, waste accumulation and improper disposal, the risk of contamination increases in crowded areas (Prata et al. Citation2020). However, the rapid accumulation of these biomedical wastes in the environmental challenges the solid waste management chain of many countries, particularly under-developed infrastructure countries. It has been reported that Wuhan, China generated around 240 tons of bio-medical waste daily which is six times higher than usual days during the outbreak of this pandemic. For the disposal of this massive amount of waste, the waste management organizations of China installed many portable incinerators in the city to burn up the discarded single-use masks, gloves, and other protective pieces of stuff (Ogunseitan Citation2020). But, in the case of under-developed countries, this disposal system is too difficult. For example, India of more than 1.33 billion people is to have produced ∼101 million tons of medical waste each day consisting mainly, face masks, gloves, and other PPE kit (Bhattacharjee et al. Citation2022; Gupta Citation2020); and most of these wastes might be ended up in the landfills or directly into the waterways due to lack of proper waste management contributing to the plastic pollution of environment. Conversely, not only PPE contributes to the plastic pollution but different kinds of medical plastic wastes also supplementing to it, which could be generated from hospitals during the treatment of patients, from quarantine centers or from any other sources are listed in ; this table primarily focuses on the items from which the plastic pollution can be amplified, as the estimated data on how much plastic medical waste has been generated globally (in USD for the year 2020) during this global pandemic is still not quite passable and comprehensive for publication. The increased contaminated waste enhances the risk of getting infected by those who are handling these wastes, such as waste collectors, cleaners, recycling workers, and other people who are spending their most of the time near these wastes, such as doctor and other health workers; these groups of people are most susceptible to the novel corona virus. It has been estimated that the improper handling of these contaminated biomedical-wastes, acts as a vector for other pathogens and diseases transmission from hepatitis B, C, and HIV patients to health workers (WHO Citation2018).
Table 1. Name, amount and their application of plastic wastes generated from biomedical wastes.
During global pandemic, the massive PPE consumption by general people and the healthcare workers has also affected the recovery and recycling of this plastic-based material and will amplify the waste dumping on the land and environmental pollution. PPE (such as N95 masks, face shield, gloves, and protective suit) constitutes mainly polypropylene; which if not recycled, and released many environmental pollutants including, dioxin and other hazardous toxic things on disposal. For instance, most of the people in Hong Kong have to wear single-use masks every day to avoid the risk of contamination for many weeks. These discarded PPE pieces of equipment, along with the empty bottles of hand wash, sanitizers, and the discarded tissue papers are ending up in the landfills or oceans with a huge volume. In a recent survey on cleaning ocean trash, carried out by some environmental activities of an NGO Ocean Asia at Soko island of Hong Kong, according to them, a large number of discarded single-use face masks found on the surface up to 100 meters wide of the beach. The director of this NGO said that his team members have seen a very smaller number of masks before pandemic but now the number exceeds and found new deposits with each coming current in the high tide and seashore. Wearing a face mask has been made mandatory for all, in India to cover their mouth and nose in public places and in any working space (Hellewell et al. Citation2020; Mishra et al. Citation2019; Singh et al. Citation2020). This pandemic situation has several unpredicted negative impacts on the environment, due to the increasing consumption of the plastic-based PPE equipment which limits the recovery and recycling of plastic waste. From the above discussion, it is demonstrated that biomedical waste, especially single-use personal protective equipment (PPE) has become an emerging form of a pollutant in the environment and is affecting the health status of many living beings world-wide.
Mechanisms of microbial surface colonization on plastisphere
The colonization of different microorganisms on the free-floating plastic surfaces is referred to as Plastisphere. These association of microorganisms on the plastic surface and subsequent formation of biofilms is mainly controlled by nutrient availability, microplastic surfaces, water current, and few other environmental factors (Ghosh and Das Citation2018; Ivar do Sul et al. Citation2018; Oberbeckmann et al. Citation2017). The preliminary report on scientific investigations of microbial colonization on the microplastic surface in the aquatic ecosystem describes that these microorganisms significantly differ from their counterparts and widely vary in different environmental conditions (Frère et al. Citation2018). In the marine aquatic ecosystem, a specific group of microorganisms are reported to be prevalent on microplastic surfaces along with the normal microbial population (Rogers et al. Citation2020). Although microbes can quickly attach on the microplastic surface, it takes a longer for colonization and stable biofilm formation (Dey et al. Citation2022). It has been reported that Gammaproteo bacteria and Alphaproteo bacteria are the first to colonize a plastic surface. Gammaproteo bacteria predominantly colonize in the initial stages of biofilms formation along with Poseobacter, Alteromonas, Phodobacteriaceae, etc. Utilizing the organic nutrients provided by initial colony forming bacteria, secondary colonizers, such Flavobacteriaceae (Bacteroidetes) grows on the microplastic surface (Zhang et al. Citation2022).
The initial phase of microbial colonization starts with the plastic surface selection and an initial attachment under different environmental conditions, further developing a permanent association between the available plastic surface and colonization (Rogers et al. Citation2020). The most important steps in microbial colonization include (i) Selection of microplastic surface by colonizing microorganisms (ii) attachment, colonization, and biofilm formation of microorganisms on plastic surface (iii) Development of stable and mutual relationship. Current investigations are focusing on transmission potentialities of microbial communities colonizing plastic surfaces, mainly bacteria, and effort to reduce their hazardous effect on aquatic organisms and potential threat to human beings. Biofilm formation by pathogenic microorganisms with some related metabolic activities also have large-scale scale toxic and harmful impacts. Prominent microbial groups which can colonize on different types of microplastic polymers in natural (freshwater and marine) conditions are represented in .
Table 2. Summary of the current published studies reporting the colonization of potential microorganisms on environmental microplastic particles.
Microbial communities are preliminarily formed in both freshwater and marine environment and then transmitted to aquatic organisms through food chain (Jacquin et al. Citation2019; Mishra and Das Citation2021; Oberbeckmann et al. Citation2017). There is a lack of information on harmful effect on aquatic animals in due to the plastisphere has never been confirmed, and advancement in the field of research will be mandatory to prove plastic particles can act as a vector for the transmission of disease-causing organisms. However, from previous investigations suggest that microplastics colonization by disease causing microorganisms may also cause harm to aquatic and terrestrial organisms (Jacquin et al. Citation2019). Plastispheres are reported to be vectors of different disease causing microorganisms including bacteria, fungi, and virus (Ghosh et al. Citation2009; Das et al. Citation2015a, Citation2015c, Citation2015d). These microbial colonies also have the propensity to attract other toxic compounds present in aquatic environment (Das et al. Citation2015e). Physical effects include the size of the plastics, their shape, and concentration of polymers and the chemical effects include the toxic chemicals that are linked with microplastics (Das and Mishra Citation2010; Das and Singh Citation2011; Enyoh et al. Citation2020). Although a lot of information is available on adverse impact of microplastic exposure on environment and animals, a very little knowledge is available on the toxic chemical additives associated with microplastic. There are two types of chemicals associated with microplastics, such as (i) additives and (ii) chemicals absorbed from the external environment (Campanale et al. Citation2020; Das et al. Citation2011, Citation2013). Various additives that are used in different types of plastics and threats associated with it are represented in .
Table 3. Heavy metals used as additives in different types of plastics and their harmful effects on human health.
The harmful effects of ocean plastic trash are extensive, but not yet fully understood because the oceanic and freshwater microplastic pollutants are continually being modified both physically and chemically. Therefore, the microbial communities which inhabit on microplastics need to be active with the capability to become accustomed to their modified atmosphere (Setti et al. Citation2020). In spite of these challenges, the relationship between pathogens and surface is a major mode of transmission of pathogenic microorganisms (Nghiem et al. Citation2020; Wu et al. Citation2020). Municipal polluted discharged water is released into the environment after proper treatment at waste water treatment plant (Das et al. Citation2009, Citation2016; Oberbeckmann et al. Citation2017). Currently, there is a deficient in standardized technique for diagnosis and quantification in wastewater samples (Kitajima et al. Citation2020). Disease causing microbes can gather microplastics in higher concentrations from the surrounding aquatic environment. The microorganisms colonized on this plastic surface forming plastisfera are completely dissimilar from the surrounding microbial colonies. Current investigations on microbial community composition and assortment on marine plastic particles have been report by Bal et al. (Citation2019), Jacquin et al. (Citation2019), Oberbeckmann et al. (Citation2017), and Zhang et al. (Citation2020), where the plastisphere serve as an ecosystem for the accumulation of pathogenic microorganisms, and also act as a suitable habitat for plastic decomposing organisms, as suggested by McCormick et al.
Biomedical contaminated microplastics of different sizes from hospitals and domestic drainages can cause contamination of food chain and disease in the organisms of higher trophic levels because many potential vulnerable pathogens can invade into the aquatic systems along with their surface. They are polluting the whole aquatic system when improperly treated or untreated effluents are directly discharged into water bodies (Biswal Citation2013; Das et al. Citation2012, Citation2016). Distribution of fragmented microplastic particles from contaminated biomedical wastes also possesses well-known risks for organisms that are included in various aquatic ecosystems. Furthermore, different harmful group of plastic polymers categorized according to their size and chemical composition posing unclear adverse effects. The fragmented tiny sized plastics provide a possible habitat for microbiota the so-called plastisphere for attachment and settlement. These plastispheres are acting as a vector for pathogenic microbes including viruses and bacteria. illustrates the entry of microplastics from land-based sources to aquatic ecosystem. Contaminated biomedical plastic pollutants enter into the ocean through both aquatic rivers, improper littering of masks, gloves, and personal protective equipment’s. Depending on the density of these plastic, they will remain floating on the ocean basin or, as they will move down and sink into the marine sediment.
Figure 1. Diagram illustrating possible pathway of microplastic pollutants from terrestrial sources to aquatic ecosystem.
describes the oceanic microbial community begins to attach, colonizing on these microplastic surfaces in the water within few hours forming ‘Plastisphere’ which includes potentially harmful microorganisms. Plastisphere microbial assemblages are divergent from adjoining aquatic surface, indicating that these plastic pollutants function as a unique microbial habitat in the aquifers and marine systems. Plastic pollutants serve as a substrate for microorganisms with a much-elongated lifespan and a hydrophobic surface helps in microbial colonization and biofilm formation, which has been reported as a path for transmission of pathogenic microorganisms.
Figure 2. The lifecycle of microplastic pollutants in aquatic ecosystem: microbial attachment on plastic surface, biofilm formation and biodegradation.
Microbial plastisphere mediated microplastic degradation
Microplastics come into contact with organic matter, inorganic particles, and microorganisms when they are in the environment. This encourages their adsorption to the surface of MP, which acts as a substrate, fostering the growth of biofilms by various microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, algae, protists, and viruses. Due to microbial enzymatic reactions, this causes structural damage to MP and a loss of properties (Miao et al. Citation2019). Microplastic and plastic fragments can act as a carbon source and support the colonization and growth of microorganisms. The plastics must first be broken down by abrasion, hydrolysis, and UV light before they can be broken down by microorganisms. This process heavily depends on the mycelium’s growth. Following this, different enzymes secreted by the microorganisms hydrolyze or oxidatively cleave the macromolecules, releasing low molar mass molecules. These micro molecules are eventually utilized by more microorganisms, which eventually turns complex compounds into CO2 and H2O. Microbes have the capability to adhere to and degrade microplastics particle, as their mycelium help to disrupt the physio-chemical structure of the plastic. The process of microbial biodegradation involves the use of organic matter as a carbon source by microbial communities (bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungi), which results in the conversion of organic carbon into biogas and biomass. The four main basic stages and continuous succeeding steps that make up the biodegradation process of MPs are generally thought to be biodeterioration, bio-fragmentation, assimilation, and mineralization (Dussud et al. Citation2018). Previous studies have confirmed the role of the filamentous fungi Fusarium oxysporum and F. solani are capable of degrading Polyethylene Terephthalate (Mayali Citation2018). Similarly, in an investigation by Zhai et al. (Citation2023) Exiguobacterium, Bacillus anthracis, Enterobacter sp., and Aspergillus sp. are reported to degrade Polystyrene efficiently. Potential bacterial and fungal strains, such as Bacillus sp., Rhodococcus sp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Aspergillus clavatus have been successfully investigated for their biodegradation potential (Amobonye et al. Citation2021; Tareen et al. Citation2022). MPs degradation is the result of the joint metabolism of multiple microorganisms in the plastisphere. Studies with single degrading microorganisms are often difficult to produce significant degradation, diverse microorganisms should be combined when such studies are conducted.
Feasible scientific controlling measures and future research direction
Various microbes including bacteria, viruses, and fungi can transmit infections by multiple routes. Control and inhibition of infection highly depends on the clear understanding of the aspects of disease transmission. Microbial microplastic surface colonization involves physiologically controlled surface attachment process with free floating plastic particles. More knowledge on the roles and control of the microbiome which are associated with plastic surface will come through research on the mechanism of colony formation. It will be difficult to quantify the geographical distribution, consecutive transfer of large to tiny synthetic plastic pollutants, and how these are affecting the organisms present in the food chain. As these pollutions are linked to different ecosystems directly, everyone should be informed of the pollution sources, transmission pathway, effective management, and remediation. Even though there are currently no systematic global guidelines for the management of plastic pollutants, possibly due to lack of economic support, few countries have however, put in place strict actions to control the unabated propagation of plastic wastes and their derivatives. Nowadays one of the biggest issues is plastic recycling. Currently, the most popular methods for recycling plastic are mechanical and chemical, which typically produce monomer or building blocks. However, mechanical recycling is typically a ‘downcycling’ process that creates products of lower quality and worth from waste materials. However, the energy recovery from plastic waste results in the production of noxious and toxic dioxins. One practical method that is recycling plastic is to break down the larger molecules of plastic through chemical reactions. However, the difficult reaction conditions and high energy requirements prevent chemical recycling from being used widely. Additionally, during these processes, a significant amount of carbon dioxide is released along with the possibility of many toxic substances. Based on this review we can conclude that the microbial biodegradation can be proved as a promising solution to combat this pollution.
Conclusion
In this review, various sources of microplastics pollutants particularly biomedical waste along with the formation of plastisphere, potential microbes, and the mechanism of biodegradation have been discussed. The article also explores the employment of microorganisms in plastic research and suggests that this could lead to innovative approaches for the sustainable management of plastic pollution. The use of microorganisms offers a promising approach to addressing plastic pollution, but further research is needed to fully understand the plastisphere. This includes exploring the distribution of microplastics, the makeup of the microbial community, and identifying potential bacteria that can break down microplastics. Future research should focus on three areas of research: examining the geographic distribution of microplastics and biofilms, studying the structure of microbial communities in the plastisphere, and investigating the effects of single bacterial strains and communities on degradation. This can be accomplished by analyzing materials, optimizing degradation conditions, using bioinformatics, and creating efficient bacterial consortia. Although microorganisms offer an alternative viewpoint on the treatment of plastic pollutants, the plastisphere still needs further study. A thorough investigation is required to properly comprehend the distribution of MPs, the microbial community structure, the plastisphere formation process, and any potential MP degrading bacteria. In the future, this research will support the development of a focused regional MP pollution control strategy as well as the worldwide distribution pattern of MPs and the composition of biofilms.
Author’s contributions
Sunanda Mishra contributed to the conception of the study, collected data from scientific articles, and wrote the manuscript; Debasis Dash supervise, conceptualizing, validating and Alok Prasad Das edited the whole manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
References
- Alshehrei F. 2017. Biodegradation of synthetic and natural plastic by microorganisms. J Appl Environ Microbiol 5:8–19.
- Amaral-Zettler LA, Zettler ER, Mincer TJ. 2020. Ecology of the plastisphere. Nat Rev Microbiol 18(3):139–151.
- Amobonye A, Bhagwat P, Singh S, Pillai S. 2021. Plastic biodegradation: frontline microbes and their enzymes. Sci Total Environ 759:143536.
- Andrady AL, Rajapakse N. 2016. Additives and chemicals in plastics. Hazardous chemicals associated with plastics in the marine environment. In: Takada H, Karapanagioti H, editors. The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry. Cham: Springer, p78.
- Auta HS, Emenike CU, Fauziah SH. 2017. Distribution and importance of microplastics in the marine environment: a review of the sources, fate, effects, and potential solutions. Environ Int 102:165–176.
- Bakker DP, Klijnstra JW, Busscher HJ, van der Mei HC. 2003. The effect of dissolved organic carbon on bacterial adhesion to conditioning films adsorbed on glass from natural seawater collected during different seasons. Biofouling 19(6):391–397.
- Bal B, Das AP. 2020. Recovery of manganese from low-grade ferromanganese ores using Bacillus safensis. In: Kalamdhad A, editor. Recent Developments in Waste Management. Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering. Singapore: Springer, p57.
- Bal B, Das BP, Das AP, Akbar John B. 2022. Molecular identification and phylogenetic analysis of Indian mangrove horseshoe crab. In: International Horseshoe Crab Conservation and Research Efforts: 2007–2020. Cham: Springer.
- Bal B, Ghosh S, Das AP. 2019. Microbial recovery and recycling of manganese waste and their future application: a review. Geomicrobiol J 36(1):85–96.
- Bal B, Nayak S, Das AP. 2017. Recent advances in molecular techniques for the diagnosis of foodborne diseases. In: Nanotechnology Applications in Food. Elsevier Inc. p267–285.
- Bhattacharjee J, Mishra S, Das AP. 2022. Recent advances in sensor-based detection of toxic dyes for bioremediation application: a review. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 194(10):4745–4764.
- Biswal S. 2013. Liquid biomedical waste management: an emerging concern for physicians. Muller J Med Sci Res 4(2):99–106.
- Bryant JA, Clemente TM, Viviani DA, Fong AA, Thomas KA, Kemp P, Karl DM, White AE, DeLong EF. 2016. Diversity and activity of communities inhabiting plastic debris in the North Pacific Gyre. mSystems 1(3):00024.
- Campanale C, Massarelli C, Savino I, Locaputo V, Uricchio VF. 2020. A detailed review study on potential effects of microplastics and additives of concern on human health. IJERPH 17(4):1212.
- Carter LJ, Garner LV, Smoot JW, Li Y, Zhou Q, Saveson CJ, Sasso JM, Gregg AC, Soares DJ, Beskid TR, et al. 2020. Assay techniques and test development for COVID-19 diagnosis. ACS Cent Sci 6(5):591–605.
- Chan JF-W, Yuan S, Kok K-H, To KK-W, Chu H, Yang J, Xing F, Liu J, Yip CC-Y, Poon RW-S, et al. 2020. A familial cluster of pneumonia associated with the 2019 novel coronavirus indicating person-to-person transmission: a study of a family cluster. Lancet 395(10223):514–523.
- Cook T. 2019. How are microplastics transported to polar regions? EOS, 100. Available at https://eos.org/research-spotlights/how-are-microplastics-transported-to-polar-regions.
- Dahmardehei M, Alinejad F, et al. 2016. Effect of sticky mat usage in control of nosocomial infection in Motahary Burn Hospital. Iran J Microbiol 8(3):210–213.
- Das AP, Bal B, Mahapatra PS. 2015c. Chromogenic biosensors for pathogen detection. In: Biological and Pharmaceutical Applications of Nanomaterial. Boca Raton: CRC Press; Taylor & Francis.
- Das AP, Bal B, Mohapatra PS, 2015d. Horseshoe crabs in modern day biotechnological applications. Changing global perspectives on biology. In: Carmichael, RH, Botton, ML, Shin, PKS, Cheung, SG, editors. Changing Global Perspectives on Horseshoe Crab Biology, Conservation and Management. Springer.
- Das AP, Bissoyi A. 2011. Computational approach for comparative phylogenetic analysis of isolated chromium resistant strain Brevibacterium casei. J Eng Technol Res 3(3):82–87.
- Das AP, Ghosh S, Bal B, Nayak S. 2016. Advanced nanosensors for detection food pathogens and toxins. In: Nanobiosensors (Nanotechnology in the Food Industry). Elsevier.
- Das AP, Ghosh S, Mohanty S, Sukla L. 2015b. Consequences of manganese compounds: a review. Toxicol Environ Chem 96(7):981–997.
- Das AP, Ghosh S, Mohanty S, Sukla LB. 2015a. Advances in manganese pollution and its bioremediation. In: Sukla, LB, et al., editors. Environmental Microbial Biotechnology, Soil Biology 45. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.
- Das AP, Ghosh S, Mohanty S, Sukla LB. 2015e. Biometallurgy: greener technology for mineral recovery from wastes. Appl Ind Biotechnol. 44–56.
- Das AP, Mishra S, Seragadam P. 2009. Microbial remediation of hexavalent chromium from chromite contaminated mines of Sukinda Valley, Orissa. J Environ Res Dev 3(4):1122–1127.
- Das AP, Mishra S. 2008. Hexavalent chromium (VI): health hazards & environmental. Pollutant J Environ Res Dev 2:386–392.
- Das AP, Mishra S. 2010. Biodegradation of the metallic carcinogen hexavalent chromium Cr (VI) by an indigenously isolated bacterial strain. J Carcinog 9:6.
- Das AP, Singh S. 2011. Occupational health assessment of chromite toxicity among Indian miners. Indian J Occup Environ Med 15:10–17.
- Das AP, Sukla LB, Pradhan N, Nayak S. 2011. Manganese biomining: a review. Bioresour Technol. 102(16):7381–7387.
- Das AP, Swain S, Panda S, Pradhan N, Sukla LB. 2012. Reductive acid leaching of low grade manganese ores. GM 2(4):70–72.
- Das AP, Swain S, Pradhan N, Sukla LB. 2013. Bioremediation and bioleaching potential of multimetal resistant microorganism. International Seminar on Mineral Processing Technology (MPT-2013), at CSIR-IMMT.
- Das AP. 2016. Biosensors: the future of diagnostics. International Journal of Sensor Networks and Data Communications 01(s1). DOI:10.4172/2090-4886.S1-e001
- Das D, Das AP, Rout PK. 2021. Effect of slag addition on compressive strength and microstructural features of fly ash based geopolymer. In: Circular Economy in the Construction Industry. CRC Press, p1–8.
- Dehghani MH, Ahrami HD, Nabizadeh R, Heidarinejad Z, Zarei A. 2019. Medical waste generation and management in medical clinics in South of Iran. MethodsX 6:727–733.
- Dey S, Rout AK, Behera BK, Ghosh K. 2022. Plastisphere community assemblage of aquatic environment: plastic-microbe interaction, role in degradation and characterization technologies. Environ Microbiome 17(1):32.
- Dussud C, Meistertzheim AL, Conan P, Pujo-Pay M, George M, Fabre P, Coudane J, Higgs P, Elineau A, Pedrotti ML, et al. 2018. Evidence of niche partitioning among bacteria living on plastics, organic particles and surrounding seawaters. Environ Pollut 236:807–816.
- Enyoh CE, Shafea L, Verla AW, Verla EN, Wang Q, Tanzin C, Marcel P. 2020. Microplastics exposure routes and toxicity studies to ecosystems: an overview. Environ Anal Health Toxicol 35(1):1–10.
- Esmaeili A, Pourbabaee AA, Alikhani HA, Shabani F, Esmaeili E. 2013. Biodegradation of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) by mixed culture of Lysinibacillus xylanilyticus and Aspergillus niger in soil. PLOS One 8(9):e71720.
- Eyheraguibel B, Traikia M, Fontanella S, Sancelme M, Bonhomme S, Fromageot D, Lemaire J, Lauranson G, Lacoste J, Delort AM. 2017. Characterization of oxidized oligomers from polyethylene films by mass spectrometry and NMR spectroscopy before and after biodegradation by a Rhodococcus rhodochrous strain. Chemosphere 184:366–374.
- Fadare OO, Okoffo ED. 2020. Covid-19 face masks: a potential source of microplastic fibers in the environment. Sci Total Environ 737(2020):140279.
- Fadare OO, Wan B, Guo L, Zhao L. 2020. Microplastics from consumer plastic food containers: are we consuming it? Chemosphere 253:126787.
- Frère L, Maignien L, Chalopin M, Huvet A, Rinnert E, Morrison H, Kerninon S, Cassone A-L, Lambert C, Reveillaud J, et al. 2018. Microplastic bacterial communities in the Bay of Brest: influence of polymer type and size. Environ Pollut 242(Pt A):614–625.
- Ghosh D, Roy K, Williamson KE, Srinivasiah S, Wommack KE, Radosevich M. 2009. Acyl-homoserine lactones can induce virus production in lysogenic bacteria: an alternative paradigm for prophage induction. Appl Environ Microbiol 75(22):7142–7152.
- Ghosh S, Das AP. 2017. Bioleaching of Manganese from mining waste residues using Acinetobacter sp. Geol Ecol Landsc 1(2):77–83.
- Ghosh S, Das AP. 2018. Metagenomic insights into the microbial diversity in manganese-contaminated mine tailings and their role in biogeochemical cycling of manganese. Sci Rep 8(1):8257.
- Gong MT, Yang GQ, Zhuang L, Zeng EY. 2019. Microbial biofilm formation and community structure on low-density polyethylene microparticles in lake water microcosms. Environ Pollut 252(Pt A):94–102.
- Gupta N. 2020. Segregation of Covid waste must to avoid coronavirus spread: NGT. Available at https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/coronavirus-segregation-of-covid-waste-must-to-avoid-coronavirus-spread-ngt-2266540.
- Gupta S, Gupta S, Gujrathi AV. 2020. Use of transparent curtains on bedside of patients with COVID-19. Clin Exp Dermatol 45(6):754–754.
- Hahladakis NJ, Costas AV, Weber R, Iacovidou E, Purnell P. 2018. An overview of chemical additives present in plastics: migration, release, fate and environmental impact during their use, disposal and recycling. J Hazard Mater 344:179–199.
- Harrison JP, Hoellein TJ, Sapp M, Tagg AS, Ju-Nam Y, Ojeda JJ. 2018. Microplastic-associated biofilms: a comparison of freshwater and marine environments. In: Wagner M, Lambert S, editors. Freshwater Microplastics. The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry, Vol. 58. Cham: Springer.
- Hellewell J, Abbott S, Gimma A, Bosse NI, Jarvis CI, Russell TW, Munday JD, Kucharski AJ, Edmunds WJ, Funk S, et al. 2020. Feasibility of controlling COVID-19 outbreaks by isolation of cases and contacts. Lancet Glob Health 8(4):e488–e496.
- Ivar do Sul JA, Tagg AS, Labrenz M. 2018. Exploring the common denominator between microplastics and microbiology: a scientometric approach. Scientometrics 117(3):2145–2157.
- Jacquin J, Cheng J, Odobel C, Pandin C, Conan P, Pujo-Pay M, Barbe V, Meistertzheim A-L, Ghiglione J-F. 2019. Microbial ecotoxicology of marine plastic debris: a review on colonization and biodegradation by the “plastisphere”. Front Microbiol 10:865.
- Kitajima M, Ahmed W, Bibby K, Carducci A, Gerba CP, Hamilton KA, Haramoto E, Rose JB. 2020. SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater: state of the knowledge and research needs. Sci Total Environ 739:139076.
- Koteswara RG, Kiran Y. 2019. A theoretical mechanism in the degradation of polyolefin plastic waste using phytochemical oxidation process. J Solid Waste Technol Manage 45(4):468–478.
- Krueger MC, Harms H, Schlosser D. 2015. Prospects for microbiological solutions to environmental pollution with plastics. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 99(21):8857–8874.
- Kumar MS, Das AP. 2016. Molecular identification of multi drug resistant bacteria from urinary tract infected urine samples. Microb Pathog 98:37–44.
- Kumar MS, Das AP. 2017. Emerging nanotechnology based strategies for diagnosis and therapeutics of urinary tract infections: a review. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 249:53–65.
- Li J, Huang W, Jiang R, Han X, Zhang D, Zhang C. 2020. Are bacterial communities associated with microplastics influenced by marine habitats? Sci Total Environ 733:139400.
- Li Z, Liu G, Wang L, Liang Y, Zhou Q, Wu F, Yao J, Chen B. 2020. From the insight of glucose metabolism disorder: oxygen therapy and blood glucose monitoring are crucial for quarantined COVID-19 patients. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 197:110614.
- Mayali X. 2018. Editorial: metabolic interactions between bacteria and phytoplankton. Front Microbiol 9:727.
- Miao L, Wang P, Hou J, Yao Y, Liu Z, Liu S, Li T. 2019. Distinct community structure and microbial functions of biofilms colonizing microplastics. Sci Total Environ 650(Pt 2):2395–2402.
- Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MOHFW). 2020. COVID-19: Guidelines on disinfection of common public places including offices. Available at https://www.mohfw.gov.in/pdf/Guidelinesondisinfectionofcommonpublicplacesincludingoffices.pdf.
- Mishra L. 2020. Experts stress on proper disposal of PPEs. Available at https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/experts-stress-on-proper-disposal-of-plastic-ppes/article31475746.ece.
- Mishra S, Das AP. 2021. Current treatment technologies for removal of microplastic and microfiber pollutants from wastewater, wastewater treatment. Elsevier. p237–251.
- Mishra S, Das AP. 2022. Treatment of the wastewater polluted with synthetic microfiber released from washing machine. In: Das BB, Hettiarachchi H, Sahu PK, Nanda S, editors. Recent Developments in Sustainable Infrastructure (ICRDSI-2020)—GEO-TRA-ENV-WRM. Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering, Vol. 207. Singapore: Springer.
- Mishra S, Dash D, Al‑Tawaha ARMS, Das AP. 2022a. A review on heavy metal ion adsorption on synthetic microfber surface in aquatic environments. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 194(10):4639–4654.
- Mishra S, Dash D, Das AP. 2022b. Detection, characterization and possible biofragmentation of synthetic microfibers released from domestic laundering wastewater as an emerging source of marine pollution. Mar Pollut Bull 185(Pt A):114254.
- Mishra S, Dash D, Subhadarsini S. 2018. Antibacterial activity assessment of native fungus isolated from chromite mines of Sukinda, Odisha. Int J Sci Res 8:1628–1631.
- Mishra S, Ghosh S, van Hullebusch ED, Singh S, Das AP. 2023. A critical review on the recovery of base and critical elements from electronic waste-contaminated streams using microbial biotechnology. Appl Biochem Biotechnol. DOI: 10.1007/s12010-023-04440-x
- Mishra S, Rath CC, Das AP. 2019. Marine microfiber pollution: a review on present status and future Challenges. Mar Pollut Bull 140:188–197.
- Mishra S, Rout PK, Das AP. 2021. Emerging microfiber pollution and its remediation. In: Prasad, R, editor. Environmental Pollution and Remediation. Environmental and Microbial Biotechnology. Singapore: Springer.
- Mishra S, Singh RP, Rath CC, Das AP. 2020. Synthetic microfibers: source, transport and their remediation. J Water Process Eng 38:101612.
- Mishra S, Singh RP, Rout PK, Das AP. 2022c. Membrane bioreactor (MBR) as an advanced wastewater treatment technology for removal of synthetic microplastics. In: Development in Wastewater Treatment Research and Processes, Removal of Emerging Contaminants from Wastewater Through Bio-nanotechnology, Elsevier Inc. p45–60.
- Mishra S, Swain S, Sahoo M, Mishra S, Das AP. 2021a. Microbial colonization and degradation of microplastics in aquatic ecosystem: a review. Geomicrobiol J 39(3–5):259–269.
- Mohanty S, Ghosh S, Bal B, Das AP. 2018. A review of biotechnology processes applied for manganese recovery from wastes. Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol 17(4):791–811.
- Mohanty S, Ghosh S, Nayak S, Das AP. 2017. Bioleaching of manganese by Aspergillus sp. isolated from mining deposits. Chemosphere 172:302–309.
- National Centre of Disease Control (NCDC). 2020. Guidelines for quarantine facilities COVID-19. Available at https://ncdc.gov.in/showfile.php?lid=552.
- Nghiem L, Morgan B, Donner E, Short MD. 2020. The COVID-19 pandemic: considerations for the waste and wastewater services sector. Case Stud Chem Environ Eng 1:100006.
- Oberbeckmann S, Kreikemeyer B, Labrenz M. 2017. Environmental factors support the formation of specific bacterial assemblages on microplastics. Front Microbiol 8:2709.
- Oberbeckmann S, Osborn AM, Duhaime MB. 2016. Microbes on a bottle: substrate, season and geography influence community composition of microbes colonizing marine plastic debris. PLOS ONE 11(8):e0159289.
- Ogunseitan OA. 2020. The materials genome and COVID-19 pandemic. JOM 72:2128–2130.
- Personal Protective Equipment Market. 2015. Personal Protective Equipment Market by Type (Hands & Arm Protection, Protective Clothing, Foot & Leg Protection, Respiratory Protection, Head Protection), End-Use Industry (Manufacturing, Construction, Oil & Gas, Healthcare) – Global Forecast to 2022. Accessed May 11, 2020. Available at https://www.marketsandmarkets.com/Market-Reports/personal-protective-equipment-market-132681971.html.
- Prata JC, Silva AL, Walker TR, Duarte AC, Rocha-Santos T. 2020. COVID-19 pandemic repercussions on the use and management of plastics. Environ Sci Technol. 54(13):7760–7765.
- Rogers KL, Carreres-Calabuig JA, Gorokhova E, Posth NR. 2020. Micro-by-micro interactions: how microorganisms influence the fate of marine microplastics. Limnol Oceanogr Lett 5(1):18–36.
- Sangster K. 2020. Coronavirus: 10 million hand sanitizer bottles heading to landfills. Accessed April 21, 2020. Available at https://in.finance.yahoo.com/news/coronavirus-10-million-hand-sanitiser-bottles-heading-to-landfill-104651962.html.
- Schnurr REJ, Alboiu V, Chaudhary M, Corbett RA, Quanz ME, Sankar K, Srain HS, Thavarajah V, Xanthos D, Walker TR. 2018. Reducing marine pollution from single-use plastics (SUPs): a review. Mar Pollut Bull 137:157–171.
- Setti L, Passarini F, De Gennaro G, Barbieri P, Perrone MG, Borelli M, Palmisani J, Di Gilio A, Piscitelli P, Miani A. 2020. Airborne transmission route of COVID-19: why 2 meters/6 feet of inter-personal distance could not be enough. IJERPH 17(8):2932.
- Singh RP, Mishra S, Das AP. 2020. Synthetic microfibers: pollution toxicity and remediation. Chemosphere 257:127199.
- Sra HK, Sandhu A, Singh M. 2020. Use of face masks in COVID-19. Indian J Pediatr 87(7):553–553.
- Tagg AS, Oberbeckmann S, Fischer D, Kreikemeyer B, Labrenz M. 2019. Paint particles are distinct and variable substrate formarine bacteria. Mar Pollut Bull 146:117–124.
- Tang ZL, Kuo T-A, Liu HH. 2017. The study of the microbes degraded polystyrene. Adv Technol Innov 2:13–17.
- Tareen A, Saeed S, Iqbal A, Batool R, Jamil N. 2022. Biodeterioration of microplastics: a promising step towards plastics waste management. Polymers 14(11):2275.
- Tripathy B, Dash A, Das AP. 2022. Detection of environmental microfiber pollutants through vibrational spectroscopic techniques: recent advances of environmental monitoring and future prospects. Crit Rev Anal Chem 1–11.
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2019. Facts and Figures about Materials, Waste and Recycling – Plastics: Material-Specific Data. Accessed May 8, 2020. Available at https://www.epa.gov/facts-and-figures-about-materials-waste-and-recycling/plastics-material-specific-data.
- Vellayappan M. 2020. When one door opens: Monash students develops 3D printed key to prevent COVID-19 spread. Monash University. Available at https://www.monash.edu/news/articles/when-one-door-opens-monash-students-develops-3d-printed-key-to-prevent-covid-19-spread.
- WHO. 2018. Health-care waste. Accessed May 1, 2020. Available at https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/health-care-waste.
- WHO. 2020a. Advice on the use of point-of-care immunodiagnostic tests for COVID-19. Available at https://www.who.int/news-room/commentaries/detail/advice-on-the-use-of-point-of-care-immunodiagnostic-tests-for-covid-19.
- WHO. 2020b. 2019-nCoV outbreak is an emergency of international concern. Available at http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/health-emergencies/coronavirus-covid-19/news/news/2020/01/2019-ncov-outbreak-is-an-emergency-of-international-concern.
- WHO. 2020c. List of priority medical devices for COVID-19 case management. Available at https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/list-of-priority-medical-devices-for-covid-19-case-management.
- WHO. 2020d. Shortage of personal protective equipment endangering health workers worldwide. Accessed May 11, 2020. Available at https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/03-03-2020-shortage-of-personal-protective-equipment-endangering-health-workers-worldwide.
- Wilkes RA, Aristilde L. 2017. Degradation and metabolism of synthetic plastics and associated products by Pseudomonas spp.: capabilities and challenges. J Appl Microbiol 123(3):582–593. /jam.13472.
- World Wildlife Fund Report. 2019. Stop the flood of plastic: How Mediterranean countries can save their sea. Available at http://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/a4_plastics_reg_low.pdf.
- Wu Y, Guo C, Tang L, Hong Z, Zhou J, Dong X, Yin H, Xiao Q, Tang Y, Qu X, et al. 2020. Prolonged presence of SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA in faecal samples. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol 5(5):434–435.
- Zhai X, Zhang XH, Yu M. 2023. Microbial colonization and degradation of marine microplastics in the plastisphere: a review. Front Microbiol 14:1127308.
- Zhang SJ, Zeng YH, Zhu JM, Cai ZH, Zhou J. 2022. The structure and assembly mechanisms of plastisphere microbial community in natural marine environment. J Hazard Mater 421:126780.
- Zhang Y, Chen C, Zhu S, Shu C, Wang D, Song J, Song Y, Zhen W, Feng Z, Wu G, et al. 2020. Isolation of 2019-nCoV from a stool specimen of a laboratory-confirmed case of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). China CDC Weekly 2(8):123–124.