https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1597-0515
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ABSTRACT
This study delves into the unexplored intersection of Socinianism, a religious movement challenging Christian orthodoxy in the Early Modern period, and Tacitism, a political discourse inspired by Tacitus. Both fostered critical thinking, intertwining in nuanced ways. Socinianism’s theological skepticism questioned established beliefs, while Tacitism scrutinized historical and political accounts. Their controversial nature resulted in covert existence among elite intellectuals, shaping socio-political discourse. Socinianism’s theological nonconformity, akin to Tacitism’s critique of traditional political narratives, often sparked conflicts with authorities, revealing the intricate relationship between religion and politics in the Early Modern Era and influencing the development of secular thought.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 [Ionas Schlichting], Apologia pro veritate accusata, ad illustrissimos et potentissimos Hollandiae et West-Frisiae Ordines, conscripta ab equite Polono, [s.l.], 1654, 108.
2 For a comprehensive study of Socinianism encompassing its historical trajectory, doctrinal perspectives, and enduring legacy see Z. Ogonowski, Socinianism: History, Views, Legacy (Roma, 2021); A.M. Wilbur, A History of Unitarianism: Socinianism and its Antecedents (Boston, 1945).
3 A. Laskowska, ed., Rakowscy arystotelicy: Johann Crell, Ethica Aristotelica (Warszawa: Sub Lupa, 2020), XX.
4 Johann Crell, Ethica Aristotelica ad Sacrarum Literarum normam emendata. Ejusdem Ethica Christiana, seu explicatio virtutum et vitiorum, Cosmopoli, 1681, 617.
5 Calvin unequivocally affirmed the state’s power to penalize heresies, a stance notably evident in the Servetus case. Cf. Calvin, Defensio orthodoxae fidei, 1554, 26: Superest ut non modo liberum esse magistratibus doceam poenas sumere de caelestis doctrinae corruptoribus, sed quod illis nolunt licere imperiti, divinitus esse mandatum, ut pestiferis erroribu impunitatem dare nequeant quin desciscant ob officii sui fide.
6 This premise rested on the idea that the Church, in its essence, lacks ‘coercive power’ (potestas coactiva), which could be employed to compel adherence to theological or moral principles. Submission to ecclesiastical authority is a voluntary choice, see Petrus Morscovius, Politia Ecclesiastica quam vulgo agendam vocant (Francofurti et Lipsiae, 1745), 48–49.
7 J. Waszink, ‘Introduction’, in Annales of the War in the Low Countries, ed. Hugo Grotius (Leuven University Press, 2023).
8 R. Tuck, Philosophy and Government 1572–1651 (Cambridge 2001), 40.
9 J. Lipsius, Politicorum Libri Sex, ed. Jan Waszink and Royal van Gorcum, 2004, see especially Lib. IV, chapter 3 and 4, 392–99.
10 S. Tworek, ‘Walka z Braćmi Polskimi w Lublinie [Fight Against the Polish Brothers in Lublin]’, Rocznik Lubelski 4 (1961): 33. Similar tumultus occurred in 1611, 1614, and 1620 but the Socinian church was rebuilt, see U. Augustyniak, Non de fide, sed de Securitate pacis. Faith and Politics in the Views of Protestants in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, 1631–632 (Odrodzenie i Reformacja w Polsce, Special Issue 2013), 231.
11 W. Kriegseisen, Stosunki wyznaniowe w relacjach państwo-kościół między reformacja a oświeceniem (Warszawa, 2010), 600.
12 A detailed description of this event can be found also in Stanisław Lubieniecki’s Historia reformationis Polonicae (Freistadii, 1685), 261–62.
13 S. Kot, Dysputacyj Braci Polskich katalog, Reformacja w Polsce, No. 33–40, 1937–1939, 462.
14 U. Augustyniak, Non de fide, 231–32.
15 W. Kriegseisen, Stosunki wyznaniowe, 600.
16 The book was titled Heraklit albo de vanitate mundi, dedicated to princess Anna Wazówna. All copies of the book were burnt, no copy survived to our times.
17 Gabriel Bethlen (1580–1629), the Duke of Transylvania and King-elect of Hungary (1620–1621), exhibited hostility towards Poland and further solidified his anti-Polish stance by forming an alliance with Swedish king Gustav Adolph.
18 I.e. Michael Gittichius, a Socinian minister of Italian origin, known commonly as ‘Venetianus’.
19 S. Kot, Dysputacyj Braci Polskich katalog, 462; cf. Sandius, Bibliotheca Antitrinitorum, Freistadii 1684, 240.
20 H. Höpfl, Jesuit Political Thought, The Society of Jesus and the State, c.1540–1630 (Cambridge 2004), 133.
21 J. Waszink, Introduction to Lipsius, Politica, 85.
22 Z. Ogonowski, Socinianism, 319.
23 L. Chmaj, Samuel Przypkowski na tle prądów religijnych XVII wieku (Kraków, 1927).
24 U. Augustyniak, Dwór i klientela Krzysztofa Radziwiłła (Warszawa, 2001), 79–80. J. Tazbir, Bracia polscy w służbie Radziwiłłów w XVII wieku. In: Radziwiłłowie XVI-XVIII w., 141–59.
25 L. Chmaj, Przypkowski, 17–18.
26 Z. Ogonowski, Socynianizm, 353.
27 S. Przypkowski, De pace et concordia, Eleutheropoli, 1628, 33–34: Ut rem in pauca conferam, an nudo mentis errore peccent ii, quos Socinianos vocant, posterius videbimus. Mihi quidem nunc evincere satis est, nudos metnis errores in Nowo foedere a Deo sempiternis suppliciis non puniri.
28 See especially Przypkowski, De pace et concordia, Chapter VIII (Generalis apologia pro Socinianis), 54–59.
29 S. Przypkowski, De pace et concordia, e.g. 4 (Ad Lectorem), 32.
30 S. Przypkowski, De pace et concordia, 7: Naturam profecto Dei nemo mortalium comprehender potest. Et frustra his subsultat irrequieta mentis nostrae indoles, ut tantae altitudinis mysterium in hac vita contingat.
31 Z. Ogonowski, Socinianism, 295.
32 Z. Ogonowski, Introduction to Crell, O wolności sumienia, transl. I. Lichońska, Warszawa 1957, xii.
33 E.g. D. Lucci, John Locke’s Christianity (Cambridge 2021), 183; F. Quatrini, ‘Tolerance, Society, and Sovereignty: The Retreat from Pluralism in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth’, Renaissance Quarterly 76, no. 1 (2023): 124–65, 145.
34 Given the posthumous nature of this publication, the decision regarding the information on the title page was likely influenced by Socinian authorities, with a potential contribution from the publisher to enhance sales.
35 J. Crell, Vindiciae, 12.
36 Ibid., 26–27.
37 J. Tazbir, Antrytrynitarianizm w Gdańsku i okolicach, Odrodzenie i Reformacja w Polsce, T. 21 (1976), 65.
38 F. S. Bock, Historia Socinianismi Prussici, Regiomonti 1754, 21.
39 Ibid., 54. From 1650 to 1653 it is Stanisław Morsztyn, 1654–1658 – Jan Crell.
40 The most comprehensive Polish monograph on Pastorius deals primarily with his activities as an educator, see Kazimierz Kubik, Joachim Pastorius, gdański pedagog XVII wieku (Gdańsk: Gdańskie Towarzystwo Naukowe, 1970); cf. Lech Mokrzecki, Dyrektor gimnazjum elbląskiego Joachim Pastorius i jego poglądy na historię („Rocznik Elbląski’, Elbląg, 1969).
41 L. Mokrzecki, Pastorius ab Hirtenberg Joachim, entry in ‘Polski Słownik Bibliograficzny’ [Polish Biographical Dictionary], vol. XXV, pp. 261–65, Wrocław 1980, 261.
42 [Anonymous], Fausten Socinen von Sena Leben und Wandel, [s.l.] 1637.
43 F. S. Bock, Historia antitrinitariorum, T. 2, 592.
44 J. Pastorius, Florus Polonicus seu historiae Polonicae epitome Nova (Lugduni Batavorum: apud Hegerum, 1641). Immediately in 1642 was published in the same place a revised version (a mendis repurgata).
45 J. Pastorius, Florus Polonicus, Dedicatio, 1.
46 H.J. Bömelburg, Polska myśl historyczna a humanistyczna historia narodowa (1500–1700) (Kraków, 2011), 317; cf. Pastorius, Annotatio, s. 473: Alter erat magnus ingenio, doctrina et dignitate vir Hugo Grotius, Luteciae Parisiorum me ob carmina honori eius inscripta humanissime excepit et postea ad conversationem tantum non familiarem admisit, ad lectionem Patrum antiquissimorum subinde adhoratatus est Graeco-Latinis imprimis, ex quibus suum Justinum Martyrem commodatio miihi dedit multis annotationibus illustratum, in quibus non pauca catholica deprehendi. [There was another man, Hugo Grotius, a great figure in terms of intellect, scholarship, and dignity. In Paris, he graciously received me due to the verses I had dedicated to him, and later, he admitted me to a conversation that was almost like family. He was particularly devoted to the reading of the most ancient Fathers, especially in Greek and Latin. From these, he lent me his annotated copy of Justin Martyr, which was adorned with many notes, among which I found several Catholic elements.]
47 Grotius was revising the Annals of the War in 1635–1637. On Grotius’ s Tacitism see J. Waszink, Introduction to Hugo Grotius, Annals of the War in the Low Countries (Leuven Univeristy Press, 2022).
48 J. Waszink, Introduction to Annals of The War, 35.
49 Sicubi asperiusculum qui aut insolens occurret, damnari non prius velim, quam Florum aque inprimis laudatissimum historicum Tacitum consuleris. Qui noviter tum mihi et cum cura lectus, sua subinde aliqua etiam non quaerenti adspersit. Florus Polonicus, Proemium, 6.
50 Florus held a respected standing in Poland, and in 1646, Krakow saw the publication of a Polish translation of his work by Krzysztof Groth Falissowski. His translation advocates a Catholic perspective, endorsing the enactment of laws akin to those in Ancient Rome against religious innovators, see L. Iuliusza Flora O poczatkach I dziejach narodu rzymskiego powieści ksiąg IV, Kraków 1646, 173; cf. Lewandowski, Florus, 36.
51 J. Pastorius, Florus, 58.
52 In se trahere – cf. Tacitus, Annales, I. 1: munia senatus magistratuum legum in se trahere.
53 Translated into English as A treatise of the court, digested into two bookes, written in French by Denis de Refuges, done into English by John Reynolds (London: A. Matthewes, 1622), followed by Eustache Du Refuge, Arcana aulica, or Walsingham’s Manual of Prudential Maxims, for the States-man and the Courtier (London: John Williams, 1652); into German by Harsdorffer, Kluger Hofmann (Frankfurt, 1655); modern English edition by G. Tullock, A Practical Guide for Ambitious Politicians (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1961).
54 J. Pastorius, Aulicus Inculpatus, Praefatio ad Lectorem, 3: Anni jam sunt complures, cum in Gallia agenti mihi offeretur et partim aliena commendatione partim suopte ingenio perplaceret hoc opusculum. Adeo quidem ut ad vertendum illud quanquam aliis distractus animum adduxerim. Sic enim fore credebam, ut et in sermone Gallico me exercerem et tali occupatione res, quas contineret liber, eximiae facilius haerescerent animo.
55 J. Pastorius, Aulicus Inculpatus, Praefatio, 3–4: Inprimis quoque Tacitus toties hic loquens, multum gratiae conciliavit. Ut est is autor suo quidem merito, sed et seculi inclinatione quadam peculiari, ita jam receptus, ut nihil sapiat, nisi Corneliano sale conditum.
56 Pastorius refers to the publication Institutiones aulicae, nunquam editae ex C. Tacito, cum primis sed aliis historicis, ab auctore incerto traditae et jam ab Eusebio Meisnero publico donatae (Amsterdam, apud Elsevirium, 1642).
57 H. Nellen, Hugo Grotius. A Lifelong Struggle for Peace in Church and State 1583–1645 (Leiden: Brill, 2015), 412.
58 The first edition of the Institutio, published in 1641, clearly incorporates references to the 1634 edition of Tacitus published by Elsevier, C. Cornelius Tacitus ex Lipsii accuratissima editione (Lugduni Batavorum, 1634).
59 P. Iwanicki, Institutio Politica, Supraslii in Coenobio PP. Basilianorum, 1746.
60 P. Iwanicki, Institutio Politica, Lugduni Batavorum, 1641, Praefatio: Cum ipse ferme ubique Taciti orbitam presso pede sequar, non aliquando in meum sensum deviare.
61 P. Iwanicki, Institutio, Dedicatio, 2: Tibi vero id liquidum est alio fine laborem hunc a me susceptum fuisse quam ut in publicum aliquando ederetur. A quo proposito, quod me dimoveri sinam, tuae voluntati id tribuendum existimo, Iwanicki, Insitutio.
62 P. Iwanicki, Institutio, Auctoris admonitio ad lectorem.
63 P. Iwanicki, Institutio, 3.
64 Ibid., 9: Rex quidem summus hominum et omnia mortalia infra magnitudinem ipsius jacent. Supra vero ipsum Deus. Cujus benignitati referenda gratia.
65 P. Iwanicki, Institutio, 5–9.